;ii  sti 


BR  in  .W24  1913 

Waring,  Henry  Fish,  1870- 

1936.  ^.^^ 

Christianity  and  its  Bit^ie 


CONSTRUCTIVE    BIBLE   STUDIES 


EDITED    BY 

ERNEST  D.  BURTON 


CHRISTIANITY  AND  ITS  BIBLE 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


Bgents 
THE  BAKER  &  TAYLOR  COMPANY 

NEW  YOUK 

THE  CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

LONDON   AND  EDINBUKGH 


CHRISTIANITY 
AND  ITS  BIBLE 


A  TEXTBOOK  AND  FOR  PRIVATE 
READING 


By 


Henry  F.  Wari 


NG 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


Copyright  igoy  By 
The  University  of  Chicago 


All  Rights  Reserved 


Published  April  1907 
Second  Impression  June  1907 
Third  Impression  January  1913 


Composed  and  Printed  By 

The  University  o!  Chicago  Press 

Chicago,  Illinois,  U.S.A. 


TO  MY  WIFE 


PREFACE 

This  book  on  Christianity  and  Its  Bible  has  been 
written  for  the  congregation.  For  years  I  have  had 
a  deepening  conviction  that  we  needed  a  survey  of 
the  whole  religious  field  in  a  small,  readable,  trust- 
worthy book  that  could  be  owned  and  used  in  practi- 
cally every  home — a  book  that  would  be  interesting 
to  all  and,  at  the  same  time,  one  that  would  richly 
repay  careful  study. 

The  benefits  of  such  a  work  are  evident.  The 
naturally  studious  would  be  helped  in  their  further 
study  of  any  or  all  the  subjects  of  which  it  treats; 
others  would  be  incited  to  further  study  of  religious 
themes;  and  all  would  be  put  into  a  much  better 
position  for  being  benefited  by  their  ordinary  religious 
hearing  and  reading.  Such  a  work  would  give  a 
foundation  on  which  to  build  a  symmetrical  structure 
of  religious  knowledge;  or,  changing  the  figure,  it 
would  give  pigeonholes  in  which  to  put  the  valuable 
results  of  all  future  hearing,  reading,  and  study 
concerning  religious  themes.  The  mastery  of  it  at 
the  beginning  of  a  theological  course  would  make 
the  whole  course  easier  and  more  profitable. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book  the  purpose  has  been 
to  help  meet  the  need  presented  in  the  last  chapter 
— the  chapter  concerning  "clear-eyed  middle-men 


X  Preface 

between  the  specialists  and  the  ordinary  readers." 
In  fact,  the  last  chapter,  in  some  respects,  would 
have  made  a  fitting  introduction  to  the  book,  an 
important  part  of  the  purpose  of  which  is  not  only 
to  relieve  doubt,  but  to  prevent  it.  The  endeavor 
has  been  to  produce  a  book  that  every  intelligent 
pastor  would  be  pleased  to  see  in  every  home  of  his 
congregation,  and  to  have  as  a  basis  of  study  in  the 
Sunday  school  or  in  some  other  department  of  his 
church  work.  It  is  a  hook  for  sabbath-school  super- 
intendents, teachers  and  older  classes,  for  Young 
Men's  Christian  Associations  and  such  societies,  and 
for  thoughtful  readers  generally. 

As  Parts  II  and  III  are  more  factual  than  the 
others,  it  may  be  better  for  some,  in  going  through 
the  book  for  the  first  time,  to  pass  directly  from  the 
end  of  the  first  part  to  the  beginning  of  the  fourth. 
The  book  as  it  stands  is  intended  to  give  to  thought- 
ful readers,  whether  in  classes  or  not,  a  naturally 
arranged  and  helpful  survey  of  the  whole  religious 
field. 

Classes  using  it  as  a  basis  of  study  may  cover  the 
ground  in  one,  two,  or  three  courses.  If  the  book 
be  taken  in  two  courses,  it  is  suggested  that  the  first 
course  be  Part  I,  chapters  vi,  viii,  and  ix  of  Part  II, 
and  all  of  Part  IV.  This  would  make  the  second 
course  mainly  historical.  If  the  book  be  covered 
by  three  courses,  it  is  suggested  that  Parts  I  and  IV 
be  the  first.  Part  II  the  second,  and  Part  III  the 


Preface  xi 

third.  The  average  length  of  the  lesson  would  be 
determined  by  the  number  of  lessons  in  the  course. 
It  is  expected  that  the  Analytical  Table  of  Contents 
and  the  Index  will  be  used  both  as  aids  in  the  study 
and  as  tests  of  its  thoroughness.  While  a  few  other 
books  are  named,  especially  for  the  help  of  lay 
teachers,  the  one  book  of  reference,  the  constant  use 
of  which  is  strongly  urged  upon  all,  is  the  one  acces- 
sible to  all — the  Bible.  Bible  references,  questions, 
and  suggestions  are  given  for  each  chapter.  That 
these  helps  for  study  may  not  make  the  book  less 
attractive  for  general  reading,  they  are  put  into  the 
Appendix. 

I  wish  to  express  grateful  appreciation  of  valuable 
suggestions  received  from  Professor  E.  D.  Burton 
and  his  colleagues. 

Recognizing  more  than  ever  that  to  understand 
any  one  department  of  rehgious  knowledge  it  is 
necessary  to  become  acquainted  with  the  others, 
and  so,  feeling  more  deeply  than  ever  the  need  of  the 
laying,  by  modern  mediators,  of  broad  foundations 
for  religious  thinking  by  the  congregation,  my  prayer, 
in  sending  out  this  book  into  the  world,  is  that  it  will 
help  meet  this  need. 

H.  F.  W. 

Halifax,  Nova  Scotia 
1907 


ANALYTICAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

[The  references  are  to  paragraphs,  not  pages] 

PART  I.     INTRODUCTORY 

Chapter  I.     Religious  Life  and  Literature 

l~li,  Religious  Life,  i,  Religion  difficult  to  define.  2,  A  kind 
of  life.  3,  True  nature  seen  in  growth.  4,  Soul  and  sin. 
5,  Sense  of  sin.  6,  Man  religious  animal.  7,  Communion 
and  union  with  God.  8,  Religion  mysterious  but  real.  9, 
Religion  and  doctrine.  10,  Children  of  God.  11,  Christian 
religion. 

12-19,  Religious  Literature.  12,  What  it  is.  13,  Of  B.  c. — 
Assyria,  Egypt,  China,  India,  Persia,  Europe.  14,  Of 
A.  D. — Judaism,  Mohammedanism,  Shintoism,  Eddas.  15, 
Specially  Sacred  writings.  16,  Of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  early 
Christians.  17,  Compared  with  religious  life.  18,  Bible 
compared  with  other  Specially  Sacred  writings.  19,  Its 
influence — why  ? 

Chapter  II.  Interpretation  and  Inspiration 
20—25,  Misinterpretation  and  Its  Remedy.  20,  Through  failure 
to  consider  times,  etc.  21,  Figurative  language  literally. 
22,  Literal  language  figuratively.  23,  Text  taken  from 
context.  24,  Inaccurate  stress  on  separate  words.  25, 
Evils  and  remedy. 
26-jy,  Inerrancy  and  Inspiration.  26,  Inerrancy.  27,  Iner- 
rancy and  inspiration.  28,  Inductive  and  traditional  views. 
29,  Dr.  Sanday  on.  30,  Claims  in  Bible.  31,  Are  they 
inerrant  ?  32,  Similar  claims  elsewhere.  33,  George  Fox 
and  Paul.  34,  Sensible  judgment  of  claims.  35,  Inspira- 
tion in  other  Specially  Sacred  writings.  36,  The  canon. 
37,  What  the  assumption  of  inerrancy  implies. 


xiv  Contents 

Chapter  III.    Truest  Bible  Study 

38,    Introdicctory.     38,    Three   steps    and    three    prerequisites. 

39-42,  Cominon-Sense.  39,  Its  worth.  40,  In  interpretation. 
41,  Of  Bible  as  small  library.  42,  Uses  different  transla- 
tions. 

43-46,  Results  0}  Scholarship.  43,  Facts — archaeology.  44, 
Manuscripts.     45,  Chronology.     46,  Wisdom  and  learning. 

47-50,  Spiritual  Insight.  47,  Truths.  48,  Mysticism  and  the 
Bible.     49,   Inspired  common-sense.     50,   And  scholarship. 

PART  II.     THE  BIBLE  AND  ITS  TIMES 
Chapter  IV.     Geography  and   Contemporaneous  History 
51-54,  Geography.     51,  Three  river  territories.     52,  Relation  be- 
tween   them.     53,    From    Persian    Gulf   around   to    Egypt. 
54,  Palestine. 
55-62,    Semitic    History.      55,     Aryan-speaking     and     Semitic 
peoples.     56,  What  were  the  Egyptians?     57,  Babylonian, 
Assyrian,     and    Chaldean    periods.     58,     Babylonian.     59, 
Assyrian.     60,    Chaldean   or   New   Babylonian.     61,    After 
Chaldean  period.     62,  Other  Semites. 
63-65,   Egyptian  History.     63,    Periods   of.     64,    Old,    Middle, 
and  New  Kingdoms.     65,  Later  history. 

Chapter  V.    History  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early 
Christians 
66,  Introductory.     66,  Two  divisions. 
67-70,  Before  586  B.  C.    67,  Before  the  division  of  the  kingdom. 

68,  The  two  kingdoms.     69,  Fall  of  the  northern.     70,  Fall 

of  southern. 
77-7P,  After  586  B.  C.     71,  Persian  period.     72,  Greek   period. 

73,  Maccabean  period.     74,  Roman  period.     75,  Jesus  born 

B.  c.     76,  Herod  family.     77,  Roman  Empire.     78,  Jewish 

sects.     79,  In  temple  and  synagogue. 

Chapter  VI.    Literature  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and 
Early  Christians 
80-89,  Chronology.     80,  Three  dates — 722,  621,  586  b.  c.     81, 
Before   and   after   586.     82     The   same.     83,    Writings   of 


Contents  xv 

Moses,  David,  and  Solomon.     84,  J,  E,  D,  and  P  in  first 
six  books.     85,  New  Testament  epistles.      86,  The  gospels. 

87,  Difference  between  Old  Testament  and  New  Testament. 

88,  Non-biblical  literature.     89,  Largely  Pharisaic. 
go-gS,  Literary  Forms.     90,  Poetry:    its  extent.     91,  Its  paral- 
lelism.    92,  Its  kinds.     93,  Wisdom  literature.     94,  Proph- 
ecy  and  history.     95,    Their   authority.     96,    History   and 
law.     97,  Gospels  and  epistles.     98,  Apocalyptic  literature. 

Chapter  VII.    Arts,  Science,  and  Philosophy 
gQ-104,   Arts.     99,   Egypt,   Assyria,   and  Phoenicia.     100,   The 

temple:     its    different    parts,     ici,    Its    size    and   contents. 

102,  Temple,  tabernacle,  and  synagogue.     103,  Greek  art. 

104,  Ancient  music. 
IOS-I06,  Science.     105,  Creation,  flood,  etc.     106,  Earth  flat,  etc. 
107-113,  Philosophy.     107,   Nature  and    periods.     108,   Before 

Socrates.    109,  Socrates  and  Plato — the  logos,     no,  Plato- 

nism  and  Aristotelianism.     iii.  After  Aristotle — the  logos. 

112,  Greek  philosophy  preparing  for  Christ.     113,  Difference 

from  Christianity. 

Chapter  VIII.     Development  of  Beliefs  in  Bible  Times 

I14-I16,  Monotheism  and  Individualism.  114,  Great  develop- 
ment.    115,  Monolatry.     116,  Individualism. 

117-121,  The  Hereafter.  117,  People's  belief  in  Sheol.  118, 
Poetic  hints  and  hopes.  119,  Prophets  and  resurrection. 
120,  Views  in  non-biblical  writings.  121,  Jesus  and  the 
hereafter. 

122-125,  Kingdom  0}  God  and  Millennium.  122,  Kingdom  of 
God.  123,  And  millennium.  124,  Rev.  20:4-6.  125,  Dogma- 
tism on  these  things. 

126-128,  Satan.  126,  Mainly  in  New  Testament.  127,  How  in 
Old  Testament.     128,  How  in  New  Testament. 

Chapter  IX.    Jesus  as  the  Christ 
12Q-133,  Messianic  Hopes.     129,   Development  of  idea.     130, 
Two  conceptions  of.     131,  Suffering  Messiah.     132,  Stum- 
bling-block   and    foolishness.     133,    Early    Christians    and 
messianic  hope. 


xvi  Contents 

Ij4-ij8,  What  Jesus  Thought  of  Himself.  134,  As  the  Logos 
or  Word.  135,  As  the  Son  of  David.  136,  As  the  Son  of 
man.  137,  As  the  Son  of  God.  138,  As  the  suffering 
Messiah. 

IJQ-140,  Jesus  as  Goal  of  Old  Testament  Hopes.  139,  Jesus  and 
Old  Testament  principles.     140,  Reigning  or  suffering. 

PART   III.     CHRISTIANITY   SINCE   BIBLE   TIMES 
Chapter  X.     Half-Way  to  15 17  a.  d. 

1 41-144,  A  Background  of  General  History.  141,  Topics  of 
first  period.  142,  Roman  Empire  and  its  division.  143, 
The  Aryans  who  took  Rome.  144,  Mohammedan  con- 
quests. 

745-757,  Fathers,  Pagan  Leaders,  and  Persecutions.  145,  Ante- 
nicene  Fathers.  146,  Post-nicene  Fathers.  147,  Three 
pagan  leaders:  Apollonius.  148,  Celsus.  149,  Porphyry 
and  Neoplatonism.  150,  Persecutions  until  Nero's  death. 
151,  After  Nero. 

752-757,  Heresies,  Creeds,  and  Papacy.  152,  Early  heresies  and 
schisms.  153,  Later  heresies:  concerning  the  Trinity.  154, 
Concerning  the  natures  of  Christ.  155,  Concerning  salva- 
tion.    156,  Four  great  creeds.     157,  Growth  of  papal  power. 

Chapter  XL     To  15 17 

755,  759,  Introductory.  158,  Topics  of  second  period.  159,  Be- 
ginning of  some  modern  nations. 

160-166,  Civil  and  Religious  Conflicts.  160,  Popes  and  civil 
rulers.  161,  Division  into  Eastern  and  Western  churches. 
162,  The  real  cause.  163,  Feudalism.  164,  Serfs  and 
knights.     165,  The  Crusades.     166,  Their  results. 

7(57-775,  Theology,  Culture,  and  Reform.  167,  Monasticism 
and  schools.  168,  The  Schoolmen.  169,  Seven  sacraments 
— ordination,  supper  (mass).  170,  Marriage,  baptism,  con- 
firmation, penance,  and  extreme  unction.  171,  Purgatory 
and  indulgences.  172,  Renaissance.  173,  Reformers  be- 
fore the   Reformation. 


Contents  xvii 

Chapter  XII.    Since  1517 

174-177,  Luther  and  Lutheranism.  174,  Topics  of  third  period. 
175,  Luther.  176,  And  Melanchton,  Erasmus,  and  Zwingli. 
177,  Lutheranism. 

178-181,  Calvinism  on  the  Continent.  178,  In  Switzerland. 
179,  In  France — Huguenots  and  Catholics.  180,  Church 
and  state  in  France.     181,  Holland  and  Belgium. 

182-igi,  England  and  Scotland.  182,  The  Church  of  England. 
183,  Puritans,  Independents,  etc.  184,  King  James'  Ver- 
sion and  Westminster  Confession.  185,  Cromwell,  Milton, 
Bunyan,  and  Revolution  of  1688.  186,  Methodism,  Salva- 
tion Army,  and  Y.  M.  C.  A.  187,  Tractarians  and  ritu- 
alism. 188,  Nonconformity  today.  189,  Scotland  Protes- 
tant rather  than  Catholic.  190,  Presbyterian  rather  than 
Episcopal.  191,  Divisions  and  unions  within  Presbyteri- 
anism. 

Chapter  XIII.  Since  15 17 — Contimied 
ig2-igg,  United  States  of  America.  192,  Pilgrim  Fathers,  two 
great  wars.  193,  A  time  of  state  churches  and  persecution. 
194,  Jonathan  Edwards  and  new  theology.  195,  Andover 
theology,  Horace  Bushnell.  196,  The  Disciples.  197,  Mor- 
monism.  198,  Plymouth  Brethren  and  Adventists.  199, 
Christian  Science. 
200-203,  Jesuits  and  Catholic  Doctrine.  200,  Jesuits — their  mis- 
sions. 201,  And  methods.  202,  Jansenists,  Ultramontan- 
ism.  203.  Papal  infallibility,  immaculate  conception,  and 
Mariolatry. 
204-207,  Creeds,  Sunday  Schools,  and  Temperance.  204,  Creeds 
and  catechisms  of  Eastern  and  Roman  Catholic  churches. 
205,  Of  Protestantism.  206,  Beginnings  and  leaders  of 
Sunday-school  work.  207,  History  of  temperance  move- 
ment. 

Chapter  XIV.     Christian  Missions 
208-211,  Of  First  Period.     208,   Until  the  Council  of  Nicaea. 
209,  In  the  East.     210,  Ulfilas  and  St.  Patrick.     211,  Co- 
lumba,  Augustine,  and  Boniface. 


xviii  Contents 

212-213,  Of  Second  Period.  212,  To  Scandinavians  and  Slavs. 
213,  Missions  and  Mohammedanism. 

214-223,  Of  Third  Period.  214,  Of  Greek  church.  215,  Of  Ro- 
man Catholicism  until  1622.  216,  Of  Roman  Catholicism 
after  1622.  217,  Colonial  work  of  Protestants.  218,  Mora- 
vians and  Schwartz.  219,  Carey  in  1792.  220,  Henry 
Martyn  and  Robert  Morrison.  221,  Adoniram  Judson  and 
John  Williams.  222,  Robert  Moffat  and  David  Living- 
stone.    223,  Alexander  Mackay  and  John  G.  Paton. 

224-228,  Fields  and  Statistics.  224,  China.  225,  Japan  and 
Korea.     226,  India.     227,  Africa,  etc.     228,  Statistics. 

Chapter  XV.    Literature,  Arts,  and  Science 

220-232,  Literature.  229,  Devotional  works,  preachers.  230, 
Hymns.  231,  Other  poetry.  232,  Bible's  influence  upon 
literature. 

233-240,  Arts.  233,  Early  attitude  to.  234,  Catacombs.  235, 
Byzantine  and  basilican.  236,  Romanesque,  Gothic,  Ren- 
aissance. 237,  Art  in  15 17.  238,  Different  attitudes  to. 
239,  Christ  in  art.     240,  Music. 

241-245,  Science.  241,  Roger  Bacon,  Copernicus,  Galileo.  242, 
Francis  Bacon,  Newton,  Buffon,  Darwin,  Huxley.  243, 
New  psychology  and  theology.  244,  Historical  criticism. 
245,   Comparative  religion. 

Chapter  XVI.    Philosophy  and  Isms 

246-24Q,  Philosophy.  246,  Representative  philosophers:  Des- 
cartes, Spinoza.  247,  Locke  and  Berkeley.  248,  Kant  and 
Hegel.     249,  Comte,  Schopenhauer,  Spencer. 

250-262,  Isms.  250,  List  of.  251,  Anabaptism,  252,  Mysti- 
cism and  theosophy.  253,  Theosophy.  254,  Mysticism. 
255,  Pietism,  quietism.  256,  Unitarians  and  Universalists. 
257,  Deism.  258,  Encyclopaedism.  259,  Rationalism. 
260,  Schleiermacher.  261,  Strauss,  Renan,  Baur.  262, 
Ritschlianism. 

PART  IV.     CHRISTIANITY  TODAY 
Chapter  XVII.     The  Glorious  Gospel 

263,  Introductory.     263,  Romans  1:16. 


Contents  xix 

264-272,  The  Christian's  Position  Defined.  264,  Rome  center 
and  brain  of  the  world.  265,  Worth  of  Roman  citizenship. 
266,  Membership  of  Roman  church.  267,  Roman  attitude 
to.  268,  Paul's  position  in  view  of  it.  269,  Attitude  to 
Christianity  today.  270,  The  litotes  for  today?  271,  In 
view  of  indifference.     272,  Picture  of  true  Christian  today. 

273-282,  The  Christian's  Position  Defended.  273,  The  defense. 
274,  The  gospel.  275,  Its  salvation.  276,  Through  faith. 
277,  Whosoever  will.  278,  It  is  God's  power.  279,  The 
marvelous  power  of  love.  280,  God's  power  through  man. 
281,  The  worth  of  experience.     282,  The  Beautiful  Life. 

Chapter  XVIII.    The  Death  of  Jesus 

283-286,  Concerning  Atonement  Theories.  283,  Purpose  of  chap- 
ter. 284,  Theories  in  Hght  of  Bible.  285,  Of  church  his- 
tory.    286,  Of  analogy. 

28y-28g,  Figurative  References.  287,  The  blood,  propitiation. 
288,  Figure  of  sacrifices.     289,  Cross  not  mere  fire-escape. 

2go-2Q2,  Death  Seen  from  His  Life.  290,  Need  of  this  vision. 
291,  How  obtained.     292,  The  result. 

2Qj-2g6,  Revelations  at  the  Cross.  293,  Of  awfulness  of  sin. 
294,  Of  ineffable  love.  295,  "Human  life  of  God."  296,  Is 
God  like  Christ  ? 

297-300,  Life  in  View  of  Cross.  297,  In  fighting  sin.  298,  In 
manifesting  true  love.  299,  Finding  God  through  Jesus. 
300,  "Make  Jesus  king." 

Chapter  XIX.     The  Fatherhood  of  God 
301-303,  Introductory.     301,  Development  of  idea.     302,  What 

Jesus  did  for.     303,  Controversies  due  to  different  use  of 

terms. 
304,  Real  Fatherhood.     304,  Distinguished  from  figurative. 
305-307,  Figure  as  Used  of    God.     305,  A  metaphor.     306,   Is 

God  male  ?     307,  A  rich  figure. 
308-309,  Elasticity  of  Figure.     308,  Great  variety  of  meanings. 

309,  Some  more  fitting  than  others. 
310-313,    Care   in   Making    Meaning    Plain.      310,    "Father" 

relative    term.     311,     In    Scripture.     312,    Trinity.      313, 

Experience. 


XX  Contents 

Chapter  XX.  The  Hereafter 
^14-^21,  Cutting  and  Polishing  a  Diamond  Principle.  314.  The 
abiding  principle.  315,  Hezekiah  and  Paul.  316,  Cause 
for  difference.  317,  Brightest  facet  for  Paul.  318,  Jesus 
lives.  319,  No  details.  320,  Essence  of  heaven  and  hell. 
321,  Fellowship  with  the  Father. 
J22-J28,  Hell,  Satan,  and  the  Larger  Hope.  322,  Words  for 
hell.  323,  Satan  today.  324,  Hell  eternal  ?  325,  For  the 
majority?  326,  Quotations  from  others.  327,  "Strive  to 
enter."     328,  The  large  and  larger  hope. 

Chapter  XXI.     The  Christian  Life  Today 
J2Q-JJ2,  Its  Power.     329,  Of  purity.     330,  Of  justice  and  mercy. 

331,  Of  love.  332,  Of  Christlikeness. 
333-341,  Its  Problems.  333,  Ttie  problem — selfishness.  334, 
Not  overcome  by  culture  and  laws.  335,  But  by  Christ- 
likeness.  336,  By  the  gospel.  337,  Liquor  traffic.  338, 
Hearty  co-operation  needed  against.  339,  Boy  problem,  etc. 
340,  Spoils,  graft,  and  labor  problem.  341,  Union  in  home 
and  church,  the  spirit  of  inquiry. 
342-344,  Its  Prospects.  342,  Selfishness  in  the  church.  343, 
Christian  life  and  antinomianism.  344,  Need  of  living  the 
cross. 

Chapter  XXII.    Meditation 

345-347,  Right  Idea  Of.  345,  Need  of.  346,  Not  reverie.  347, 
Not  study,  contemplation,  etc. 

348-354,  Rules  to  Be  Observed.  348,  Single  themes.  349,  For 
energy  is  limited.  350,  Practical  themes.  351,  Best  times. 
352,  In  solitude.     353,  Much  time.     354,  Meet  God. 

355-362,  Results  to  Be  Obtained.  355,  Enriches  Bible.  356, 
Goes  through  it  slowly.  357,  Helps  prayer.  358,  Makes 
for  Christhke  love  for  others.  359,  For  friendship  that  fel- 
lowships. 360,  For  missions  and  revivals.  361,  For  happi- 
ness.    362,  Ineffable  joy. 

Chapter  XXIII.     Middlemen 
363-364,   TJte  Need  of  Middlemen.     363,  Troubled  waters  that 
divide.     364,  Specialists  and  ordinary  readers. 


Contents  xxi 

^65-368,  The  Middleman  Needed.  365,  Knows  specialists  and 
readers.  366,  His  attitude.  367,  Not  a  "retail  talker." 
368,  His  method. 

3^9~374>  ^^^  Mediation.  369,  For  safety  of  church.  370,  To 
show  steps  through  slough  of  doubt.  371,  To  lead  to 
heights  of  faith.  372,  Word  to  bigot  on  comparative  reli- 
gion. 373,  And  higher  criticism.  374,  His  word  to  skep- 
tics. 

375-376,  His  Meditation.  375,  Makes  messages  interesting. 
376,  And  nourishing. 


PART  T 
INTRODUCTORY 


CHAPTER  I 
RELIGIOUS    LIFE    AND    LITERATURE 

RELIGIOUS    LIFE 

1.  Part  I  is  introductory.  It  aims  to  get  a  true 
method  of  Bible  study.  It  is  to  reach  this  that  it 
first  considers  the  Bible  as  religious  literature,  and 
then  faces  the  questions  of  inerrancy  and  inspiration 
as  they  affect  interpretation.  It  begins  by  asking: 
What  is  religion?  How  commonly  we  use  terms 
it  would  puzzle  us  to  explain !  How  much  easier  to 
describe  than  to  define !  How  much  easier,  for  in- 
stance, to  watch  and  to  write  about  the  working  of 
electricity  than  to  tell  just  what  electricity  is !  How 
much  easier  to  describe  the  effects  of  religion  than 
to  define  it! 

2.  Many  and  varied  are  the  attempts  at  definition. 
Let  us  notice  two:  "the  life  of  God  in  the  soul  of 
man;"  "the  life  of  man  in  his  superhuman  rela- 
tions." Both  of  these  use  the  word  "life."  Reli- 
gion is  not  worship  of  God,  nor  work  for  God,  nor 
faith  in  God,  nor  love  to  God;  for  none  of  these  is 
large  enough  to  include  it.  It,  however,  may  in- 
clude all  of  them.  The  only  word  that  includes  it 
is  the  word  "life."  Religion  is  a  life — a  kind  of 
life ;  for  though  we  should  be  able  to  get  to  the  very 
heart  of  the  mystery  of  life  and  should  find  that  there 

3 


4  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

all  life  is  the  same,  yet,  in  view  of  its  different  mani- 
festations, we  may  legitimately  speak  of  its  different 
kinds. 

3.  How  are  we  going  to  find  out  just  what  this 
religious  life  is?  The  true  nature  of  religion  as  a 
kind  of  life,  like  the  true  nature  of  any  living  thing, 
is  shown  as  it  grows.  It  is  important  to  keep  this 
in  mind.  Failing  to  see  this,  some  have  argued  from 
the  morbidness  of  religions  in  their  earliest  histories 
that  religion  after  all  is  but  a  morbid  disease — some- 
thing to  be  outgrown.  To  them  theology,  as  the 
science  of  religion,  is  a  part  of  pathology — the  science 
of  morbid  conditions.  Instead,  it  is  a  part  of  biol- 
ogy— the  science  of  life.  It  is  not  a  disease  to  be 
outgrown;  so  far,  at  least,  man  seems  to  be  "incur- 
ably religious."  It  is  rather  a  life  that  has  grown; 
and  we  are  to  look  for  its  true  nature,  not  simply  in 
its  beginnings,  but  also  and  mainly  in  its  growth. 

4.  What,  then,  is  the  true  nature  of  religion? 
The  one  word  that  includes  it  is  too  large  to  be  satis- 
factory. There  is  "life"  in  plants  and  in  animals; 
but  we  do  not,  save  in  poetry,  speak  of  them  as  reli- 
gious. The  distinctive  principle  of  the  religious  life 
is  to  be  found  in  that  which  distinguishes  man  from 
these.  It  is  to  be  found  in  that  which  we  commonly 
call  his  soul.  Because  of  this,  man  is  the  religious 
animal  in  whose  nature  there  is  that  which  is  higher 
and  that  which  is  lower.  According  as  he  is  able 
to  distinguish  between  them,  and  has  the  power  to 


Religious  Life  and  Literature  5 

subordinate  the  lower  to  the  higher,  the  failure  to  do 
so  is  sin.  As  the  religious  animal,  therefore,  man 
is  capable  of  sin. 

5.  The  study  of  the  history  of  religion  shows  that, 
when  man  thought  his  union  with  God  was  akin  to 
his  physical  blood-bond  with  the  other  animals,  his 
moral  sense  was  weak.  As  he  distinguished  him- 
self from  the  other  animals  and  felt  that  he  was 
united  to  God  in  a  higher  way  than  with  them,  he 
felt,  in  varying  degrees,  a  sense  of  sin.  This  in 
Paul's  writings  found  strong  expression ;  for  instance, 
in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  chapters  of  Romans. 
These  are  some  of  his  words: 

I  delight  in  the  law  of  God  after  the  inward  man;  but  I 
see  a  different  law  in  my  members,  warring  against  the  law 
of  my  mind,  and  bringing  me  into  captivity  under  the  law  of 
sin  which  is  in  my  members.  Wretched  man  that  I  am !  who 
shall  deliver  me  out  of  the  body  of  this  death  ? 

6.  In  spite  of,  or  even  because  of,  that  which  we 
call  his  soul,  man,  as  the  religious  animal,  may,  in 
a  certain  sense,  go  lower  than  the  other  animals. 
There  is  truth  as  well  as  wit  in  the  words  of  her  who 
said:  "The  more  I  see  of  men,  the  better  I  like 
dogs."  Ernest  Thompson  Seton  leaves  upon  us  a 
very  favorable  impression  concerning  Krag,  the 
Kootenay  ram,  as  compared  with  Scotty,  the  hunter 
who  murdered  him.  On  the  other  hand,  because 
he  has  a  soul,  or  rather  because  he  is  a  soul  that  has 
a  body,  what  possibilities  man  has  in  rising  above 


6  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

the  other  animals!  Though,  as  an  animal,  he  is 
limited  by  the  body,  as  the  religious  animal  man's 
life  is  almost  unlimited.  Like  the  philosopher's 
garden,  though  short  and  narrow,  it  is  high.  As 
the  carbon,  though  black,  becomes  luminous  with  the 
current  of  electricity,  so  he,  though  of  the  earth  earthy, 
may  be  illumined  with  the  living  light  of  heaven. 

7.  By  virtue  of  his  religious  life,  man  has  a  sense 
of  communion  and  union  with  God.  The  more  of 
this  life  he  has,  the  sweeter  the  communion  and  the 
closer  the  union. 

Spirit  with  Spirit  can  meet; 
Closer  is  He  than  breathing,  and  nearer  than 
hands  and  feet. 

We  should  remember,  however,  that  our  relation- 
ship with  God  is  unpicturable.  When  we  say  "near 
God,"  "in  God,"  "from  God,"  "to  God,"  the  ex- 
pressions are  not  to  be  taken  as  having  spatial 
meaning,  but  rather  as  the  inadequate  efforts  of  the 
human  mind  and  tongue  to  express  transcendent 
realities. 

And  the  ears  of  man  cannot  hear  and  the  eyes  of  man  can- 
not see; 
But  if  we  could  see  and  hear,  this  Vision — were  it  not  He  ? 

Though  "now  we  see  in  a  mirror  darkly," 

Is  not   the  Vision  He  ?   though  He  be  not  that  which  He 

seems? 
Dreams  are   true   while   they   last,  and  do  we  not   live   in 

dreams  ? 


Religious  Life  and  Literature  7 

Ere  the  dawn  of  the  eternal  day  in  which  we  hope 
"  to  see  Him  even  as  He  is, "  to  us,  in  this  dreamland 
of  time,  the  very  essence  of  religion  is,  and  in  truth 
too,  "practicing  the  presence  of  God,"  in  whom 
"we  live  and  move  and  have  our  being." 

8.  Though  a  mystery,  the  religious  life  is  a  real- 
ity. All  life  is  hidden.  Nature  awakes  from  her 
winter's  sleep  to  clothe  herself  in  a  garb  of  wondrous 
hues.  The  loving  glances  of  the  sun,  and  heavenly 
words  of  raindrops  from  the  clouds,  and  sweetest 
words  of  dewdrops  on  the  earth  have  wooed  the  buds 
to  open  up  their  hearts  in  floral  messages  of  love; 
and  the  flowers  fill  the  eye  with  their  beauty  and 
make  the  air  heavy  with  the  fragrance  of  their 
sweetest  incense.  We  ask  our  friend  the  botanist: 
"  What  is  the  explanation  of  this  wondrous  change  ?  " 
and  he  quickly  answers:  "Life."  We  ask  him: 
"What  is  life?"  and  he  is  dumb,  or  his  words  are 
unintelligible  to  us.  But  the  zephyrs,  stealing  over 
the  fresh  green  grass  and  kissing  the  flowers  on  the 
way,  whisper:  " It  is  hidden ;  it  is  hidden."  We  go 
to  the  woods,  and  we  are  thrilled  by  that  song  which 
a  poetic  Canadian  has  patriotically  worded  thus: 
"O  dear  Canada,  Canada,  Canada!"  Who  is  the 
songster?  Our  friend  the  naturalist,  who  knows 
the  sights  and  sounds  and  ways  of  the  woods,  takes 
us  to  a  distant  tree  and  shows  us  a  shy  little  sparrow. 
We  ask:  "How  is  it  possible  for  that  little  white 
throat  to  pour  forth  such  a  sea  of  melody  upon  some 


8  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

waves  of  which  our  souls  are  floating  with  delight  ?  " 
When  he  too  answers  that  it  is  due  to  life,  we  ask 
him:  "What  is  life?"  There  is  no  reply.  The 
silence  is  broken  as  the  white-throated  sparrow, 
lifting  its  head  toward  heaven,  sings:  "It  is  hid  in 
God,  hid  in  God,  hid  in  God. "  Hidden,  yes,  but  real. 
Though  the  religious  life,  like  all  other  kinds  of  life, 
is  mysterious  and  cannot  be  defined,  it  is  real. 

9.  The  reality  of  this  life  hid  in  God  is  the  very 
warp  of  a  rational  system  of  religious  truth.  This 
is  the  truth  that  is  back  of  the  great  religious  doc- 
trines. Regeneration  means  the  coming  of  life  from 
God.  Conversion  means  the  corresponding  flow 
to  God.  Together  they  mean  that  there  is  a  great 
at-one-ment  between  man  and  God.  Prayer,  praise, 
faith,  and  love  are  due  to  the  Godward  flow  from 
man.  This  life  in  God  is  beautifully  illustrated  by 
such  figures  as  that  of  the  union  of  the  vine  and  its 
branches.  As  there  are  the  currents  from  the  vine 
to  the  branches  and  from  the  branches  to  the  vine, 
so  there  is  a  commingling  of  the  life-currents  of  God 
and  man.  Wonderful,  is  it  not — the  currents  of 
inspiring  grace  coming  to  man,  and  the  return  cur- 
rent of  worship  going  to  God;  the  arterial  flow  of 
the  very  heart-life  of  God,  and  the  veinal  flow  to  be 
purified  with  the  very  breath  of  God  in  the  atmos- 
phere of  heaven? 

10.  What  a  pity  that  men  do  not  better  appreciate 
the  wonderful  truth  back  of  this  figure  of  speech! 


Religious  Life  and  Literature  9 

The  blood  circulated  in  the  living  body  before  Har- 
vey made  the  great  discovery  of  its  circulation.  So 
men  may  have  the  religious  life  even  though  they 
do  not  think  of  the  wonderful  circulation  of  its 
living  currents.  As,  however,  Harvey's  discovery 
made  such  an  advance  in  the  science  of  health  and 
healing,  would  not  a  better  recognition  of  the  truth 
concerning  these  currents  of  religious  life  make  for 
spiritual  well-being  ?  It  would  help  us,  not  simply  to 
have  the  religious  life,  but  to  have  it  abundantly. 
It  would  inspire  us  to  "  seek  those  things  that  are 
above. "  It  would  give  us  a  dignity  and  holy  pride 
that  would  keep  us  from  sin.  No  matter  how  demo- 
cratic we  may  be,  we  believe  in  blue  blood  of  the 
right  kind.  To  learn  that  the  blood  of  truly  great 
ancestors  is  in  our  veins  would  give  us  pleasure  and 
make  us  proud.  How  much  more  reason  have  we 
for  joyous  pride  in  the  great  truth  that,  in  a  way 
unrecognized  before,  the  currents  of  a  divine  life  are 
in  us.  In  distinction  from  the  other  animals,  we 
have  not  simply  life,  but  Life.  We  are  not  simply 
the  offspring  of  the  animal  man,  but  are  "children 
of  God."     We  are  not  dogs,  but  gods. 

II.  There  is  nothing  morbid  about  this.  In  seek- 
ing the  nature  of  religion,  not  simply  in  the  history 
of  its  beginnings,  but  in  its  growth,  we  have  come  to 
the  joyous  truth  of  the  Christian  religion.  In  Jesus 
the  essential  germ  of  all  religion  found  most  beauti- 
ful florescence  and  choicest  fruitage  as  he  "practiced 


lO  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

the  presence"  of  the  "Father"  with  whom  he  was 
in  living  oneness.  The  Fourth  Gospel  gives  as  his 
prayer  for  Christians:  "I  pray  that  they  may  all 
be  one;  even  as  thou,  Father,  art  in  me,  and  I  in 
thee,  that  they  also  may  be  in  us. "  The  religion  of 
a  Christian  is  to  be  found  in  that  mysterious  but 
real  hfe  that  is  "hid  with  Christ  in  God." 

RELIGIOUS   LITERATURE 

12.  As  life  religion  manifests  itself  in  different 
ways,  written  and  unwritten.  In  some  religions 
there  never  have  been  written  manifestations.  In 
no  religion  has  there  ever  been  more  than  a  small 
part  of  its  manifestations  written  (John  21:25);  but 
wherever,  and  to  the  extent,  they  are  written,  reli- 
gious literature  is  the  result.  In  some  instances  it 
may  be  difficult  to  tell  whether  or  not  a  piece  of  litera- 
ture is  to  be  classed  as  religious.  In  a  general  way, 
however,  we  may  look  upon  religious  literature  as 
that  which  (whatever  else  it  may  contain)  gives  us 
in  a  marked  degree  manifestations  of  religious  life. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  Bible,  this  literature  may  be  of 
great  importance.  Compared  with  the  religion  it- 
self, however,  even  in  the  case  of  the  Bible  it  is  of 
secondary  importance. 

13.  It  is  significant  that  we  find  so  much  religion 
in  all  the  most  ancient  literatures.  Assyriology  tells 
us  of  the  religious  nature  of  much  of  the  very  early 
literature  which  it  has  brought  to  light.     It  also 


Religious  Life  and  Literature  ii 

impresses  the  lesson  upon  us  by  showing  (in  its 
poetic  account  of  creation  and  flood,  its  code  of 
laws,  and  its  many  penitential  psalms)  most  striking 
parallels  between  that  literature  and  subsequent 
literature  in  the  Old  Testament.  Egyptology  tells 
us  of  the  famous  "  Book  of  the  Dead, "  and  of  impor- 
tant religious  texts  inscribed  upon  the  pyramids 
thousands  of  years  before  Christ,  In  China  we  find 
Confucianism's  five  important  books.  These  were 
composed  and  compiled,  mainly  at  least,  by  Confu- 
cius, who  lived  hundreds  of  years  before  Christ. 
To  China  also  belongs  Taoism's  "  Book  of  Doctrine 
and  Virtue,"  the  Tao-ti-king.  In  India  Brahman- 
ism  has  its  Sruti,  or  revelation,  and  its  Smruti,  or 
tradition.  The  Sruti  includes  the  Mantras  (four 
books  of  Vedic  hymns  of  many  authors  and  ages), 
the  Brahmanas,  or  commentaries  on  these,  and  the 
still  later  Upanishads,  or  philosophical  treatises. 
The  Smruti  includes  the  Laws  of  Menu,  or  Indian 
Pentateuch,  the  Puranas,  or  legends,  and  two  popu- 
lar epics,  one  of  which  presents  the  avatar  (incarna- 
tion) of  Vishnu,  the  popular  second  person  of  the 
Hindu  triad;  the  first  is  Brahma,  and  the  third  Siva. 
Though  now  much  more  potent  in  more  eastern  Asia, 
Buddhism  originated  in  India.  Its  Tripitaka  ("  three 
baskets")  date  back  centuries  before  Christ.  In  the 
third  and  best  part  are  the  impressive  and  popular 
Dhammapada,  which  must  take  a  high  place  in  reli- 
gious literature.  In  Persia  originated  Zoroastrianism's 


12  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Zend-Avesta,  in  which  Avesta  is  the  text  and  Zend 
the  inspired  commentary.  In  Europe  religion  per- 
vaded the  pre-Christian  writings  of  Greeks  and 
Romans,  though  they  have  left  no  such  sacred  col- 
lection as  we  find  in  what  are  called  the  sacred 
books  of  the  East. 

14.  We  pass  to  the  religious  literatures  since  the 
birth  of  Christ.  Christianity  has  had  an  increas- 
ingly large  religious  literature.  Of  this  the  New 
Testament,  though  very  important,  is,  after  all,  but 
a  very  small  part.  The  Old  Testament,  it  should 
be  remembered,  was  adopted  from  Judaism,  of  the 
literature  of  which  it  forms  but  a  small  part.  The 
Apocrypha  and  other  pre-Christian  writings  of  Ju- 
daism will  be  referred  to  again.  First  among  its 
writers  in  Christian  times  we  must  place  the  dis- 
tinguished philosopher  Philo,  in  whose  lifetime  Jesus 
was  both  born  and  buried.  A  few  years  after  Jesus 
was  buried,  Josephus,  the  eminent  Jewish  historian, 
was  born.  He  wrote  of  the  antiquities  and  wars  of 
the  Jews.  An  important  place  in  Jewish  literature 
is  taken  by  the  Mishna,  or  "repetition,"  supposed  to 
have  come  down  orally  from  the  time  of  Moses — the 
tradition  of  the  elders.  The  Gemaras  are  its  two 
expositions — one  of  Jerusalem  and  the  other  of  Baby- 
lon. These,  printed  with  the  Mishna,  give  us  the 
two  Talmuds — the  Palestinian  and  the  Babylonian. 
Besides  these  there  are  targums  or  translations  of  the 
Old  Testament,  midrashim,  or  commentaries,  and 


Religious  Life  and  Literature  13 

many  other  productions  of  the  rabbis  throughout 
the  Christian  centuries.  It  was  in  these  centuries 
that  Mohammedanism  arose.  In  this  the  Koran — 
i.  e.,  "reading"  (or  better  Alcoran,  i.  e.,  "the  read- 
ing")— takes  a  very  important  place.  This  Mo- 
hammedan Bible  consists  of  the  scattered  writings 
of  Mohammed  that  have  been  put  together,  but  not 
in  the  order  in  which  they  were  written.  In  Japan 
Shintoism,  now  scarcely  called  a  religion,  is  to  be 
studied  from  the  Kojiki  (record  of  antiquities),  Ni- 
hongi  (chronicles  of  Japan),  etc. — all  written  during 
the  Christian  era.  From  northern  Europe  comes  a 
collection  of  alliterative,  mythological  poems,  called 
the  Elder  Edda,  and  its  prose  commentary,  called 
the  Younger  Edda — an  Icelandic  word  for  "great- 
grandmother."  Collection  and  commentary  are 
commonly  referred  to  as  the  Eddas. 

15.  We  have  seen  that,  as  Christianity  has  its 
literature,  so  other  religions  have  theirs.  We  note, 
next,  that  in  each  of  a  number  of  these  different  reli- 
gious literatures  there  have  been  some  writings  that 
by  the  adherents  of  their  religion  have  been  com- 
monly viewed  (i)  as  having  special  influence  with 
deity;  or  (2)  as  having  been  specially  influenced  by 
deity  in  their  production — i.  e.,  of  having  been 
inspired;  or  (3)  in  both  these  ways.  As  Brahman- 
ism  has  its  Sruti,  Buddhism  its  Tripitaka,  and  Mo- 
hammedanism its  Koran,  so  Christianity  has  its 
Bible.     If,  to  distinguish  them  from  all  other  reli- 


14  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

gious  or  even  sacred  literature,  we  should  call  such 
writings  "Specially  Sacred,"  the  Bible  may  be  de- 
fined as  the  "Specially  Sacred"  writings  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

i6.  Specially  Sacred  writings  may  be  a  book,  as 
in  Mohammedanism,  or,  as  in  Brahmanism,  it  may 
be  a  collection  of  the  writings  of  many  in  many 
different  times.  The  Bible  belongs  to  the  latter 
class.  The  Greek  title  from  which  comes  the  very 
word  "Bible"  was  used  in  the  plural  and  meant 
"books."  Later,  through  a  meaningful  grammati- 
cal blunder,  the  Latin  word  for  it  was  used  in  the 
singular  and  meant  "book."  Suggested  by  this 
mistake  is  the  important  truth  that  there  is  a  remark- 
able unity  in  the  Bible.  In  gladly  recognizing  this, 
we  need  strongly  to  emphasize  what  was  implied  by 
the  early  Greek  title — namely,  that  the  Bible  should 
be  viewed,  not  simply  as  a  book,  but  as  a  literature. 
It  contains  writings  that,  from  many  ages  and  from 
many  different  places  and  circumstances,  come  to 
us  as  the  works  of  many  minds.  Much  of  it  has 
come  down  to  us  as  the  work  of  compilers  as  well  as 
of  composers,  of  editors  as  well  as  of  authors.  There 
is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  concerning  the 
dates  of  the  origin  of  its  different  parts.  Some  of  it 
was  written  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in 
586  B.  c.  If  we  think  of  that  date  as  that  on  which 
the  history  of  the  Hebrew  nation  closed  and  that  of 
the  Jewish  people  began,  we  must  look  upon  the 


Religious  Life  and  Literature  15 

Bible  as  the  expression  of  the  religious  life  of  He 
brews,  Jews,  and  early  Christians. 

17.  Though  the  New  Testament  as  the  expression 
of  the  early  Christians  is  commonly  valued  more 
highly  than  the  much  larger  Old  Testament  of  He- 
brews and  Jews,  what  indications  are  there  that,  in 
founding  the  Christian  religion,  Jesus  ever  thought 
that  through  him  a  New  Testament  would  be  added 
to  the  Specially  Sacred  writings  of  his  followers? 
Brooding  over  such  a  question  impresses  us  with  the 
thought  that,  after  all,  even  the  highest  Specially 
Sacred  writings  are  only  of  secondary  importance  as 
compared  with  the  religious  life  itself. 

18.  How  does  the  Bible  compare  with  other  Spe- 
cially Sacred  writings?  Morally  and  religiously  it 
is  much  superior.  It  "iinds"  us  as  they  do  not. 
The  more  we  compare  the  religious  conceptions  re- 
vealed in  it  and  in  them,  the  more  do  we  appreciate 
its  progressive  revelation.  Appreciation  of  this  helps 
to  a  right  understanding  of  both  the  difficuties  and 
the  truths  of  the  Bible.  For  the  sake  of  right  method 
Christians  should  be  willing,  and  in  profound  confi- 
dence in  the  result  they  may  well  be  eager,  to  have 
the  Bible  intelligently  compared,  for  instance,  with 
Sruti,  Tripitaka,  or  Koran.  When  thus  compared, 
especially  because  of  its  revelation  in  and  through 
Jesus,  it  will  be  found  to  be  beyond  comparison. 

19.  Impressive  as  coming  from  a  liberal  thinker 
are  the  words  of  Theodore  Parker: 


1 6  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

This  collection  of  books  has  taken  such  a  hold  on  the  world 
as  has  no  other.  The  literature  of  Greece  which  goes  up  like 
incense  from  the  land  of  temples  and  heroic  deeds  has  not 

half  the  influence  of  this  book It  goes  equally  to  the 

cottage  of  the  plain  man  and  the  palace  of  the  king.  It  is 
woven  into  the  literature  of  the  scholar  and  colors  the  talk  of 
the  street. 

Why?  How  great  its  power  in  both  obtaining  and 
retaining  liberty!  "The  best  of  all  allies  that  you 
can  procure  for  us,"  said  Garibaldi  "is  the  Bible; 
that  will  bring  us  the  reality  of  freedom."  Why? 
To  another  great  soldier,  General  Grant,  it  was  "the 
sheet  anchor  of  our  liberties. "  Why  ?  How  it  has 
made  the  prison  walls  to  resound  with  praise  to  God, 
and  even  the  fiery  tongues  of  martyrdom  to  tell  of 
God's  love!  How  through  it  our  fathers  and 
mothers  have  been  strengthened  for  their  work, 
cheered  in  their  sorrows,  filled  with  unfathomable 
peace,  lifted  at  times  to  the  ecstatic  summits  of  the 
mountains  of  heavenly  joy,  given  grace  in  passing 
through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death;  and  at 
last,  pillowing  their  heads  upon  its  promises,  with 
what  calm  trust  they  fell  asleep!  Why?  Handel, 
in  his  production  of  the  Messiah  as  obtained  from 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  said  of  himself:  "I  did 
think  I  did  see  all  heaven  before  me  and  the  great 
God  himself. "  So  men  throughout  the  ages,  through 
the  study  of  the  Bible,  that  they  might  give  to  the 
world  the  inspiring  music  of  a  Christlike  life,  have 
beheld  heavenly  things  and  have  felt  the  presence, 
and  been  thrilled  by  the  love,  the  very  life,  of  God. 


CHAPTER  II 

INTERPRETATION  AND  INSPIRATION 

MISINTERPRETATION  AND   ITS   REMEDY 

20.  Because  of  the  greatness  of  the  Bible,  great 
care  needs  to  be  exercised  in  its  interpretation.  In 
this  chapter,  as  we  seek  a  remedy  for  the  evils  of 
misinterpretation,  we  shall  be  brought  face  to  face 
with  the  questions  of  inerrancy  and  inspiration, 
and  shall  seek  to  face  them  honestly.  Misinter- 
pretations of  the  Bible  have  been  common,  and 
some  of  them  have  been  costly.  Many  of  them 
have  been  due  to  the  failure  to  consider  the  times 
and  circumstances  in  which  the  writings  originated. 
With  little  or  no  regard  to  the  fact  that  ideas  and 
the  meanings  of  terms  change  through  the  centu- 
ries, the  terms  of  the  early  writings  have  been  given 
the  meanings  they  had  in  the  later  writings  of  the 
Bible,  and  even  in  writings  down  to  the  present 
time.  In  the  study  of  the  Old  Testament  the  dis- 
tinction between  "religious"  and  "Christian"  has 
been  frequently  ignored.  Later  ideas  of  the  future 
and  of  God's  nature  have  been  carried  back  into 
earlier  times  and  terms.  Because  the  Bible  is  now 
frequently  called  the  "Word  of  God,"  that  and 
similar  expressions  are  often  treated  as  if  they  re- 
ferred to  the  Bible  as  a  whole. 

17 


1 8  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

21.  A  second  class  of  misinterpretations  is  made 
by  taking  figurative  language  literally.  While  it 
differs  from  the  other  productions  of  the  East,  the 
Bible  nevertheless  abounds  in  oriental  imagery 
which,  if  taken  literally,  leads  into  untold  absurd- 
ities. You  can  drive  any  place  you  please,  if  you 
can  make  the  figures  of  the  Bible  go  on  all  fours. 
Numerous  instances  might  be  cited  of  the  misinter- 
pretations of  the  parables.  The  imagery  of  Revela- 
tion is  a  stumbling-block  to  many.  A  cowboy 
preacher,  who  had  been  figuring  on  the  dimensions 
of  the  New  Jerusalem,  in  an  eloquent  sermon  on 
heaven  gave  us  some  idea  of  how  much  room  there 
would  be  per  saint.  It  reminded  us  of  the  question 
about  the  size  of  Noah's  ark  and  the  room  per 
animal. 

22.  A  third  class  of  misinterpretations  is  due  to 
taking  literal  language  figuratively.  It  seems  to 
have  been  hard  for  many  to  understand  that  much 
of  the  Bible  was  local  and  temporary,  and  therefore 
has  no  special  application  to  the  very  different  life 
of  later  times.  This  has  led  to  much  spiritualizing  of 
the  narratives.  That  the  lameness  of  Mephibosheth 
was  to  suggest,  not  simply  depravity,  but  total  de- 
pravity because  he  "was  lame  in  both  his  feet,"  is 
but  an  extreme  illustration  of  a  tendency  still  too 
common. 

23.  A  fourth  class,  and  one  of  the  largest,  of  mis- 
interpretations is  due  to  the  separation  of  the  text 


Interpretation  and  inspiration  19 

from  the  context.  If  this  method  be  permitted, 
there  may  be  brought  in  proof  of  almost  any  absurd 
teaching  imaginable  a  large  collection  of  what  Shake- 
speare calls  "odd  old  ends  stolen  forth  of  holy 
writ."    With  his  Bassanio  we  ask: 

In  religion 
What  damned  error  but  some  sober  brow 
Will  bless  it  and  approve  it  with  a  text? 
Hiding  its  grossness  with  fair  ornament  ? 

How  often  "A  little  child  shall  lead  them"  (Isa. 
11:6)  is  used  with  no  thought  of  its  context.  Many 
other  instances  might  be  cited.  Dean  Stanley's 
story  in  his  Eastern  Church  seems  to  cap  the  climax. 
Peter  the  Great,  in  introducing  tobacco  to  Russia, 
asked  if  his  tobacco-smoking  was  worse  than  her 
brandy-drinking.  "Yes,"  was  the  deliberate  re- 
ply; "for  not  that  which  goeth  into  a  man,  but  that 
which  goeth  out  of  a  man,  defileth  him"  (Matt., 
chap.  15,  and  Mark,  chap.  7). 

24.  A  fifth  class  of  misinterpretations  is  due  to 
inaccurate  stress  on  separate  words.  By  many 
minds  pictorial  words  are  magnified,  while  others 
in  the  same  sentence,  though  more  emphatic,  are 
neglected.  Sometimes  a  separate  thought  is  sug- 
gested by  each  of  several  words,  but  the  one  central 
thought  is  overlooked.  Many  overlook  the  fact  that 
the  Bible  is  a  translation,  and  that  without  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  emphasis  and  choice  of  words  in  the 
original  language  in  which  the  passage  was  written 


20  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

it  is  not  wise  to  attempt  to  discriminate  between 
slightly  different  shades  of  meaning.  I  have  a  ser- 
mon by  a  somewhat  successful  evangelist  who  at- 
tempted to  distinguish  between  "wash  me  throughly  " 
(Ps.  51:2)  of  the  Authorized  Version,  which  he  un- 
questionably preferred,  and  "wash  me  thoroughly" 
of  the  Revised  Version.  He  used  this  illustration: 
"I  hand  a  sealed  jar  to  my  servant-girl  and  tell  her 
to  wash  it  thoroughly.  She  cleans  it  on  the  outside. 
I  unscrew  the  lid  and  smell  inside.  Phew !  Then  I 
tell  her  to  wash  it  throughly. " 

25.  Misinterpretations  cause  much  humor,  but 
more  harm.  Church  history  from  beginning  to  end 
is  a  commentary  on  Bunyan's  doggerel:  "By  misin- 
terpreting evil  ensues."  Among  the  evil  results 
have  been  the  obscuring  of  the  truth,  the  teaching  of 
that  which  was  false,  the  perpetuation  of  the  evils  of 
Bible  times,  the  increase  of  isms,  and  the  awakening 
of  unnecessary  doubts.  To  avoid  these  evils  it  can 
scarcely  be  emphasized  too  strongly  that  the  inter- 
preter, as  an  interpreter,  should  seek  first  in  the  light 
0}  their  times,  etc.,  just  what  meanings  the  different 
authors  intended  to  convey. 

INERRANCY  AND   INSPIRATION 

26.  In  doing  this,  can  it  be  assumed  that  these 
meanings  must  always  be  absolutely  without  mis- 
take ?  In  other  words,  must  it  be  assumed  that  in 
all  its  parts  the  Bible  is  inerrant  ?    No  matter  what 


Interpretation  and  Inspiration  21 

the  author  may  seem  to  have  meant,  must  true  inter- 
preters assume  that  it  could  not  have  been  meant 
if  in  it  there  is  the  slightest  mistake?  When  diffi- 
culties are  presented  that  they  cannot  meet,  have 
they  a  right  to  take  refuge  in  the  fact  that  we  have 
only  more  or  less  imperfect  copies  of  the  original 
writings,  and  to  assume  that,  if  we  could  get  back 
to  the  originals  themselves,  we  should  surely  or  prob- 
ably find  them  to  be  inerrant  ?  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
is  it  not  true,  in  a  number  of  passages,  that  in 
getting  nearer  the  original  writings  Christian 
scholars  have  found  difficulties  that  otherwise  would 
not  have  existed  for  them  ?  Apart  from  this  alto- 
gether, as  a  matter  of  method  is  it  not  true  that  in 
proportion  to  the  extraordinariness  of  a  claim  we  look 
for  proof  instead  of  mere  assumption  ?  This  claim 
made  for  the  Bible  is  so  extraordinary  that  to  the 
logical  mind  its  mere  assumption  is  presumption. 
Those  who  simply  refrain  from  asserting  that  the 
Bible  is  inerrant  are  not  called  upon  to  prove  that 
it  has  mistakes.  The  burden  of  proof  rests  upon 
those  who  assert  its  inerrancy.  It  is  for  them  to  give 
good  reason  for  their  extraordinary  assertion. 

27.  A  common  thought  is  that  the  Bible  is  iner- 
rant because  it  is  inspired.  Have  interpreters,  how- 
ever, a  right  merely  to  assume  that  it  is  so  inspired  ? 
Since  ''inspiration"  is  a  word  of  various  and  varying 
meanings,  to  grant  that  the  Bible  is  inspired  is  not 
necessarily  to  grant  that  it  is  inerrant.     If  the  word 


22  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

"inspired"  ever  has  a  meaning  when  applied  to 
literature,  few  would  deny  that  the  Bible  is  inspired. 
The  question,  then,  is  not :  "  Is  the  Bible  inspired  ?  " 
but  rather:  "What  is  the  nature  of  its  inspiration  ? " 
Speaking  generally,  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible  is  to 
be  felt  rather  than  critically  defined.  A  working 
definition  may  sometimes  be  necessary,  however,  in 
order  to  correct  or  prevent  a  view  that  interferes 
with  the  true  Bible  study.  The  mere  assumption 
of  an  inspiration  that  makes  the  Bible  absolutely 
inerrant  does  interfere  with  this  study.  Such  an 
assumption  should  be  supplanted  by  a  right  view 
of  the  Bible's  inspiration. 

28.  How  is  this  to  be  obtained  ?  Instead  of 
taking  a  theory  and  trying  to  make  it  fit  the  Bible, 
it  is  better  to  begin  with  the  study  of  the  Bible  itself. 
For  instance,  what  claims  for  inspiration  does  it 
contain?  It  is  from  such  facts  that  a  working  defi- 
nition is  to  be  framed  when  needed.  Dr.  A.  H. 
Strong  writes: 

Whatever  theory  of  inspiration  we  frame  should  be  the 
result  of  a  strict  induction  of  the  Scripture  facts,  and  not  an 
a  priori  scheme  to  which  Scripture  must  be  conformed.  The 
fault  of  many  past  discussions  of  the  subject  is  the  assumption 
that  God  must  adopt  some  particular  method  of  inspiration 
or  secure  an  absolute  perfection  of  detail  in  matters  not  essen- 
tial to  the  religious  teachings  of  Scripture. 

According  to  the  traditional  method,  what  naturally 
seems   to   be   the   author's   meaning   must   not   be 


Interpretation  and  Inspiration  23 

accepted  as  the  meaning  of  the  passage  unless  it  be 
inerrant.  According  to  the  inductive  method,  what 
naturally  seems  to  be  the  author's  meaning  is  ac- 
cepted as  the  meaning  of  the  passage  even  though  it 
may  not  be  inerrant. 

29.  Of  the  "traditional  theory"  of  inspiration  Dr. 
Sanday  writes: 

It  may  have  been  held  somewhat  vaguely  and  indefinitely, 
and  those  who  held  it  might,  if  pressed  upon  the  subject,  have 
made  some  concessions  which  would  have  involved  them  in 

perplexities It  might  be  allowed  that  the  true  text 

could  not  always  be  discovered,  but  when  once  it  had  been 

discovered,  it  could  not  be  otherwise  than  infallible 

The  danger  of  the  traditional  view  is  lest  inspiration  should  be 
thought  of  as  something  dead  and  mechanical;  when  it  is 
arrived  at  inductively,  it  must  needs  be  conceived  as  something 
vital  and  organic. 

Of  the  inductive  method  and  its  results  he  writes: 

It  is  no  doubt  a  great  inversion  of  method  when  the  books 
of  the  two  Testaments  are  interrogated  without  any  assump- 
tion whatever  beyond  that  of  a  personal  God  who  might  be 
conceived  as  capable  of  putting  himself  into  communication 

with  men On  the  inductive  view,  inspiration  is  not 

inherent  in  the  Bible  as  such,  but  is  present  in  different  books 
and  parts  of  books  in  different  degrees.  More  particularly 
on  this  view— and  here  is  the  point  of  greatest  divergence — 
it  belongs  to  the  historical  books  rather  as  conveying  a  religious 
lesson  than  as  histories,  rather  as  interpreting  than  narrating 
plain  matter  of  fact.  The  crucial  issue  is  that  in  this  last 
respect  they  do  not  seem  to  be  exempted  from  possibilities 
of  error. 


24  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

We  should  seek  by  "strict  and  rigorous  induction" 
"scientific  propositions  which  alone  can  be  rightly 
pressed  upon  the  unbeliever,  and  which  alone  the 
believer  can  take  as  his  foundation"  in  truest  Bible 
study.  We  should  not  endeavor  to  find  that  the 
Bible  is  what  we  think  it  ought  to  be.  In  the  pres- 
ence of  the  God  of  truth,  we  should  honestly  seek  to 
find  out  just  what  the  Bible  is. 

30.  What  does  it  claim  to  be  ?  It  never  uses  such 
terms  as  the  "Word"  and  the  "Word  of  God"  of 
all  and  only  itself.  It  nowhere  claims  inspiration 
for  itself  as  a  whole.  Yet  it  contains  from  many 
different  people,  for  themselves  and  for  others,  many 
different  claims  of  inspiration.  In  Old  Testament 
narratives  Jehovah  frequently  is  represented  as 
speaking  to  man;  for  instance,  to  Moses,  Ex.  24: 
3,  4.  The  Old  Testament  prophets  often  use  such 
expressions  as  "Jehovah  said."  Among  the  strong- 
est statements  in  the  gospels  are  Matt.  5:17,  18; 
John  10:35.  These,  however,  are  to  be  read  in  the 
light  of  such  passages  as  Mark  7:15-19;  Matt.  8: 
1-4;  12:1-12.  Important  passages  in  the  rest  of 
the  New  Testament  are  II  Tim.  3:15,  16;  and 
II  Pet.  3:16. 

31.  Were  its  thoughts  and  words  inspired  accord- 
ing to  the  claims  for  them  that  it  contains  ?  Here  is 
an  instance  where  even  for  the  average  Christian 
the  thought  of  other  religious  literature  is  helpful. 
In  writing  of  the  Bible  as  the  Specially  Sacred  writ- 


Interpretation  and  Inspiration  25 

ings  of  Christianity,  we  referred  to  the  Specially 
Sacred  writings  of  other  religions.  The  ordinary 
Christian  can  easily  be  led  to  see  that  in  these  reli- 
gions there  are  writings  in  and  for  which  claims  of 
inspiration  are  made  similar  to  those  made  in  and 
for  the  Bible.  He  can  easily  be  made  to  see  that, 
though  the  results  of  the  testing  be  very  different,  yet 
the  method  of  the  testing  of  the  claims  of  all  these 
religions  ought  in  all  honesty  to  be  the  same.  As  he 
can  readily  see  that  the  adherents  of  other  religions 
have  no  right  simply  to  assume  the  inerrancy  of  the 
claims  in  and  for  their  Specially  Sacred  writings,  he 
can  easily  be  led  to  see  that  he  himself  has  no  right 
merely  to  assume  the  inerrancy  of  the  claims  made  in 
and  for  the  Bible. 

32.  If,  as  claimed,  Jehovah  spoke  to  Moses  in  the 
giving  of  the  Law,  how  about  the  similar  claims, 
and  concerning  somewhat  similar  things,  that  before 
the  days  of  Moses  were  made  by  the  Babylonian 
King  Hammurabi  for  his  famous  code  discovered  in 
1 901-2  ?  It  is  suggestive,  to  say  the  least,  to  read 
that  upon  the  monument  upon  which  the  code  was 
written  there  is  also  "a  very  interesting  representa- 
tion of  the  king  Hammurabi  receiving  his  laws  from 
the  seated  sun-god  Samas,  '  the  judge  of  heaven  and 
earth.'  "  If  David  was  inspired,  as  we  read  in 
I  Sam.  23:2,  was  Mesha,  king  of  the  closely  related 
Moabites,  also  inspired  according  to  his  claim? 
On  the  famous  Moabite  stone,  discovered  in  1868, 


26  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

he  wrote  of  his  god:  "And  Chemosh  said  to  me: 
*Go  seize  Nebo  upon  Israel.'  "  Large  numbers  be- 
lieve that  as  a  revelation  from  God  any  part  of  the 
Bible  is  above  the  highest  writings  of  any  other  liter- 
ature. Large  numbers  believe  the  same  of  the 
Koran.  Where  we  have  the  different  religions 
making  these  similar,  and  sometimes  mutually  con- 
tradictory, claims  concerning  their  literature,  who  is 
to  decide  concerning  them? 

33.  When  representatives  of  other  religions  claim 
that  their  gods  spoke  to  them,  we  say  at  once  that  of 
course  there  was  no  objective  speaking.  At  best  it 
was  the  coming  of  a  conviction  that  such  and  such 
was  the  will  of  Deity.  How  about  the  similar  claims 
made  in  the  Bible?  An  interesting  seventeenth- 
century  parallel  to  Paul  is  found  in  the  heroic,  per- 
secuted founder  of  the  Quakers,  George  Fox. 
Trusting  in  the  "inner  light,"  and  believing  he  had 
power  to  work  miracles,  he  wrote  that  he  did  thus 
and  so  "at  the  command  of  God."  Was  he  always 
correct  in  his  claims?  Were  Paul  and  the  other 
Scripture  writers  always  correct  in  their  convictions 
as  to  what  was  the  will  of  God  ?  If  at  times,  even 
where  there  are  specific  claims  of  inspiration,  those 
who  made  the  claims  were  mistaken,  would  it  mean 
that  they  were  impostors?  Would  it  even  mean 
that  they  were  never  inspired  at  all  ?  Is  it  not  con- 
ceivable that  good  men,  then  as  now,  may  have 
made,  conscientiously,  claims  that  in  some  respects 
were  sometimes  erroneous? 


Interpretation  and  Inspiration  27 

34.  As  translated  by  the  Twentieth  Century  Testa- 
ment, Paul  once  wrote:  "I  speak  to  you  as  sensible 
men;  use  your  own  judgment  about  what  I  am  say- 
ing." As  sensible  men  we  shall  take  into  account 
Paul's  type  of  mind  and  character  as  compared,  for 
instance,  with  those  of  George  Fox  or  of  Mohammed. 
We  shall  see  him  in  the  light  of  his  times,  and  shall 
be  influenced  by  the  effects  of  his  writings.  We 
shall  make  all  allowance  for  his  greatness  and  for 
his  unique  position  in  the  early  church.  To  be 
honest,  however,  in  the  presence  of  God  we,  as 
sensible  men,  must  use  our  own  judgment  about 
even  what  Paul  writes.  If,  for  instance,  in  his  some- 
what rabbinical  reasonings  or  in  his  quotations  from 
the  Old  Testament,  we  should  find  what  is  to  us  an 
unmistakable  error,  we,  of  course,  should  not  look 
upon  it  as  an  inspired  revelation  any  more  than  we 
should  consider  inspired  any  error  we  might  find  in 
the  professedly  inerrant  Koran.  As  with  the  writings 
of  Paul,  so  with  the  other  parts  of  the  Bible.  If  we 
hear  with  horror  quotations  from  a  Turk's  prayer 
against  unbelievers,  shall  we  treat  as  inspired,  be- 
cause it  is  in  the  Bible,  such  a  passage  as  that  at  the 
close  of  the  Psalm  137:  "Happy  shall  he  be  that 
taketh  and  dasheth  thy  little  ones  against  the  rocks"  ? 
Whatever  the  claims  made  in  and  for  any  part  of  the 
Bible,  we,  as  sensible  men,  should  view  them  in  the 
light  of  their  times,  of  similar  claims  in  other  reli- 
gions, of  the  character  of  those  who  made  the 
claims;    and  also  in  the  light  of  the  contents  and 


28  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

effects  of  the  writings  themselves.  Then,  honestly 
and  prayerfully,  we  should  use  our  own  judgment 
concerning  them. 

35.  Viewed  thus,  can  we  say  that  all  that  is  in 
the  Bible  is  inspired  ?  On  the  other  hand,  must 
we  deny  inspiration  to  the  highest  passages  in  other 
Specially  Sacred  writings  ?  In  a  note  in  his  Oracles 
of  God,  Dr.  Sanday  wrote  of  Guatauma  or  Buddha: 

It  is  impossible  to  read  the  life  and  teachings  of  Gautauma 
without  feeling  that  he,  too,  had  an  impulse  from  the  Holy 
One.  It  would  be  little  in  accordance  with  Christian  doc- 
trine to  maintain  that  the  divine  influences  which  were  vouch- 
safed in  so  large  a  measure  to  select  spirits  in  Palestine  were 
wholly  wanting  in  India  or  Greece. 

36.  Are  there  not  in  other  Christian  writings  pas- 
sages which,  if  found  in  the  Bible,  we  should  cer- 
tainly call  inspired  ?  This  brings  us  to  the  question 
of  the  making  of  the  canon;  i.  e.,  to  the  question  of 
the  determining  of  the  number  and  the  extent  of  the 
Specially  Sacred  writings  of  Christianity.  Just  the 
number  and  the  extent  of  the  writings  that  Jesus  and 
the  apostles  considered  Specially  Sacred  we  do  not 
know.  The  question  of  the  final  settling  of  the  Old 
Testament  canon  is  one  of  great  difficulty.  In  the 
third  Council  of  Carthage,  397,  all  the  New  Testa- 
ment books  were  recognized.  In  the  Council  of 
Trent,  1545-63,  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
Apocrypha  were  formally  included  in  the  canon  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  church.     Concerning  the  use  of 


Interpretation  and  Inspiration  29 

these  Apocrypha  the  position  of  the  Holy,  Ortho- 
dox, Catholic,  Apostolic,  Oriental  church  (commonly 
called  the  Eastern,  or  Greek,  church)  is  somewhere 
between  that  of  Protestantism  and  that  of  the  Holy, 
Catholic,  Apostolic,  and  Roman  church. 

37.  Among  the  Protestants  it  is  quite  commonly 
recognized  that  their  canon  was  not  made  through 
some  miraculous  revelation.  It  was  not  the  result 
of  the  acts  of  infallible  councils.  It  was  made 
through  a  natural,  gradual,  more  or  less  critical 
process,  the  results  of  which  were  discussed  and 
some  of  them  ratified  by  different  councils.  Those 
who  cannot  honestly  say  that  they  believe  that  the 
number  and  the  extent  of  the  books  of  the  Bible  were 
infallibly  determined,  and  who  nevertheless  hold 
that  the  whole  Bible  is  inerrant,  may  sometimes 
find,  in  deciding  concerning  a  particular  passage 
or  book,  that  their  position  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
reported  jury  whose  verdict  ran:  "Guilty,  but  with 
some  doubt  as  to  whether  he  was  the  man."  For 
an  inerrant  Bible  we  need  an  infallible  determining 
of  the  number  and  extent  of  inerrant  writings.  It 
needs  to  be  strongly  emphasized  today  that  we  have 
no  right  merely  to  assume  an  infallible  inspiration 
either  of  the  writings  or  for  the  determining  of  their 
number  and  extent.  Such  assumptions  prevent 
truest  interpretation.  This,  without  assuming  that 
they  are  absolutely  errorless,  -first  seeks  the  exact 
meanings  the  authors  intended  to  convey. 


CHAPTER  III 

TRUEST  BIBLE  STUDY 

INTRODUCTORY 

38.  Strictly  speaking,  interpretation  of  the  author's 
thought  is  only  the  first  part  of  truest  Bible  study. 
The  next  important  step  is  to  get  the  facts  back  of 
the  author's  thought.  It  is  said  that,  when  von 
Ranke  was  asked  the  secret  of  the  abiding  worth  of 
his  historical  writings,  he  replied:  "I  do  not  go  back 
to,  but  back  of,  the  documents."  Truest  Bible 
study  seeks  to  get  back  of  each  author's  meaning 
in  order  the  better  to  estimate  its  worth.  It  com- 
pares the  different  parts  of  the  Bible  among  them- 
selves and  with  other  records.  It  seeks  to  see  them 
in  the  light  of  their  times.  It  seeks  to  give,  and  in 
a  historical  order,  what  actually  happened,  and  what 
was  actually  believed,  and  by  whom.  The  last  and 
most  important  step  in  Bible  study  is  that  of  getting 
the  truths  in  and  back  of  the  historical  events  and 
beliefs  of  the  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  early  Christians. 
Back  of  the  events  of  that  unique  history  great  truths 
are  to  be  found.  In  and  back  of  the  beliefs,  in  spite 
of  errors,  incompleteness,  and  local  and  temporal 
coloring,  what  inspiring  truths!  For  the  truest 
taking  of  these  three  important  steps  in  Bible  study 
there  are  three  important  prerequisites:    common- 

30 


Truest  Bible  Study  31 

sense,  recognition  of  the  results  of  scholarship,  and 
spiritual  insight.  Attention  should  be  called  to 
them. 

COMMON- SENSE 

39.  Our  first  prerequisite  is  common-sense.  It 
is  helpful  to  note  that  the  results  of  special  scholar- 
ship are  more  easily  within  the  reach  of  a  man  of 
common-sense  than  the  results  of  common-sense  are 
within  the  reach  of  a  narrow-minded  scholar.  One 
such  was  suggestively  called  the  most  learned  fool 
in  Europe.  In  many  schools,  while  much  time  has 
been  given  to  the  original  tongues,  not  enough  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  the  common-sense  interpreta- 
tion of  even  the  English  text.  As  a  result,  many 
have  gone  out  from  our  schools  with  uncommon 
knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  Greek,  but  to  violate  the 
most  common-sense  principles  of  interpretation.  A 
knowledge  of  the  original  languages  is  indispensable 
to  specialists.  It  is  needed  also  by  middlemen.  The 
excellent  translations  and  commentaries  of  today  pre- 
vent its  lack  from  being  such  a  serious  handicap  to 
the  ordinary  Bible  student  of  good  common-sense. 

40.  Common-sense  is  especially  helpful  in  taking 
the  first  step  in  truest  Bible  study.  It  helps  to  get 
just  the  meanings  the  authors  intended  to  convey. 
It  sees  that  interpreters  should  view  the  different 
terms  in  the  light  of  the  times  in  which  they  were 
used.  If  an  expression  was  literal  and  had  but  one 
meaning  to  the  writer,  it  ought  to  have  but  one  and 


32  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

the  same  meaning  to  interpreters,  as  interpreters,  of 
that  writer.  If  it  was  figurative,  and  with  a  more 
or  less  definite  meaning,  to  the  writer,  it  ought  to  be 
figurative  and  with  the  same  meaning  to  us.  The 
relative  emphasis  of  the  writer  ought  to  be  ours. 
The  use  of  common-sense  is  much  needed  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  parable,  especially  in  the  treat- 
ment of  its  details.  In  respect  to  these  the  parables 
that  evidently  were  given  to  teach  some  manifold 
truth,  such  as  the  nature  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  are 
to  be  distinguished  from  those  that  simply  teach  some 
one  specific  duty  or  truth.  In  the  treatment,  espe- 
cially of  the  latter  kind,  one  of  the  most  common 
errors  of  interpreters  is  the  unwarranted  application 
of  details  that  belong  only  to  the  drapery  of  the 
story.  Another  common  error  in  the  treatment  of 
the  parables  is  the  giving  to  different  parts  of  the 
story  meanings  more  or  less  foreign  to  the  main 
thought.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  laws  that 
apply  to  the  interpretation  of  literature  in  general 
ought  not  to  be  violated  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  Bible.  Its  literature  is  of  very  different  kinds, 
and  should  be  interpreted  accordingly.  Its  poetry, 
history,  prophecy,  apocalyptic  writings,  wisdom 
Hterature,  gospels,  and  letters  should  be  interpreted 
in  the  light  of  what  is  known  concerning  these.  Not 
only  its  history,  but  its  prophecy,  and  more  or  less 
of  its  other  writings,  to  be  most  profitably  studied 
must  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  map. 


Truest  Bible  Study  33 

41.  Common-sense  treats  the  Bible  as  a  small 
library  that  did  not  drop  down  from  heaven  ready- 
made,  but  that,  at  sundry  times  and  places,  was 
written  by  man.  It  sees  that  the  books  should  be 
understood  separately.  Where  there  is  unmistak- 
able indication  of  compilation,  it  is  in  sympathy  with 
any  honest  effort  to  distinguish  one  document  from 
another.  As  it  distinguishes  between  Macaulay  and 
Carlyle,  so  between  Mark  and  Paul,  and  between 
the  first  three  gospels  and  the  fourth.  As  it  dis- 
tinguishes the  early  bards  and  chroniclers  from  the 
illustrious  writers  of  the  Elizabethan  age,  so  the 
Old  Testament  from  the  New  Testament.  In  as 
far  as  it  has  the  light,  it  reads  the  different  parts  of 
the  Bible  in  the  light  of  the  times  and  circumstances 
of  their  origin.  It  is  thus  better  able  to  see  in  their 
different  terms  just  the  meanings  the  authors  in- 
tended to  convey.  It  realizes  that  the  aim  of  the 
interpreter  is  not  to  harmonize  the  different  books 
or  documents,  or  even  the  different  parts  of  a  single 
one  of  them.  It  aims  rather,  by  a  comparative 
study  of  them,  and  of  their  different  parts,  to  find 
out  just  what  is  the  meaning  of  each.  It  studies 
each  book  or  document  as  a  whole,  and  reads  and 
re-reads  it  at  a  sitting,  that  each  text  may  be  seen  in 
the  light  of  its  context.  It  makes  much  of  concord- 
ances and  other  helps  to  find  parallel  passages,  but 
does  not  fail  to  estimate  the  individual  worth  of 
these  passages  in  the  light  of  their  times,  etc. 


34  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

42.  Common-sense  recognizes  the  advantages  of 
using  different  translations.  It  sees  that  this  coun- 
teracts the  tendency  to  magnify  the  letter  rather  than 
the  spirit.  It  also  gives  a  better  appreciation  of  the 
thoughts  because  they  are  thus  seen  in  more  than 
one  way.  While  common-sense  may  make  the 
quite  literal  Revised  Version  the  basis  of  its  work,  it 
rejoices  in  the  helpfulness  of  other  translations,  such 
as  the  very  free  rendering  in  the  Twentieth  Century 
New  Testament.  It  sees  the  advantage  of  having  at 
least  one  English  version,  whatever  its  name,  that 
will  be  so  plain  that  it  will  be  "  understanded "  by 
the  wayfaring  men.  It  sees  that,  if  the  ''sad-smiling 
average  man"  be  unable  to  get  the  water  of  life 
freely  from  an  antique  vessel  that  is  the  delight  of 
literary  souls,  for  his  soul's  sake  they  ought  not  to 
prevent  him  from  having  a  plain,  modern  cup  from 
which  he  may  the  more  freely  drink  and  live.  It  is 
well  in  this  connection  to  remember  that  the  Hellen- 
istic Greek  in  which  the  New  Testament  was  written 
was  an  everyday  language  as  compared  with  the 
classical  Greek.  It  is  well  also  to  remember  that 
for  the  most  part  the  New  Testament  was  written 
in  a  colloquial  style.  "It  affords,"  wrote  Professor 
J.  H.  Thayer,  "a  striking  illustration  of  the  divine 
policy  in  putting  honor  on  what  men  call  'com- 
mon.' "  Common-sense  recognizes  the  significance 
of  this. 


Truest  Bible  Study  35 

RESULTS   OF   SCHOLARSHIP 

43.  Our  second  prerequisite  in  truest  Bible  study 
is  the  recognition  of  the  rcsuhs  of  scholarship.  This 
is  especially  helpful  in  getting  the  facts  in  and  back 
of  the  authors'  thoughts.  Archaeology  shows  us 
increasingly  large  collections  of  interesting  remains 
from  ancient  times.  Of  most  importance  are  the 
ancient  writings  upon  stone,  clay,  and  parchment. 
Some  of  the  inscriptions  upon  stone  and  clay  carry 
us  back  so  far  that  Moses  himself  seems  somewhat 
modem.  They  have  greatly  changed  our  concep- 
tions of  the  early  Hebrews,  whom  we  are  now  better 
able  to  see  as  they  were  seen  by  their  contempo- 
raries. They  have  also  thrown  much  light  upon  the 
Hebrew  language  itself. 

44.  We  have  not  a  single  Bible  writing  in  the  hand- 
writing of  its  author.  We  are  dependent  upon 
copies  of  copies  written  generations  after  the  original. 
Copyists  wrote  on  "paper"  (II  John,  vs.  12)  made 
from  the  papyrus  plant,  and  on  durable  parchments 
made  from  the  skins  of  animals.  The  manuscript 
might  be  a  roll,  or  it  might  be  a  codex — i.  e.,  a  manu- 
script in  what  might  be  called  book-form  and 
written  in  capital  letters.  Scores  of  uncial  manu- 
scripts— i.  e.,  those  written  in  capitals — and  hun- 
dreds of  cursive  manuscripts — i.  e.,  those  written  in 
small  running  hand — have  come  down  to  us.  As 
copyists  made  mistakes,  the  earliest  MSS  are  prob- 


36  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

ably  nearest  the  originals;  and  the  more  of  these 
important  MSS  to  be  compared,  the  better  the  result. 
In  both  these  respects,  as  well  as  in  the  matter  of 
translation,  the  revisors  of  1881  had  the  advantage 
over  the  King  James'  translators.  As  the  preface 
of  the  Revised  Version  is  within  easy  reach,  we  quote 
but  one  sentence:  "Nearly  all  the  more  ancient  of 
the  documentary  authorities  have  become  known 
only  within  the  last  two  centuries;  some  of  the  most 
important  of  them,  indeed,  within  the  last  few  years." 
In  1844  and  1859,  and  so  centuries  after  the  King 
James'  Version,  Professor  Tischendorf  discovered 
what  is  known  now  as  the  great  Codex  Sinaiticus,  so 
called  from  Sinai  where  is  was  found.  The  story 
of  its  finding  is  one  of  great  interest.  Its  great  com- 
panion is  the  Codex  Vaticanus,  so  called  from  the 
Vatican  library  to  which  it  belongs.  Both  of  these 
are  thought  to  have  come  from  the  fourth  century. 
The  Codex  Alexandrine  in  the  British  Museum  is 
also  of  great  importance. 

45.  Increased  attention  to  the  literary  study  of  the 
Bible  has  yielded  rich  results  in  the  understanding 
of  the  contents  of  the  different  parts  of  the  Bible  as 
viewed  in  the  light  of  their  different  times.  However 
they  may  differ  in  details  and  whatever  the  vagaries 
of  some  of  them,  the  higher  critics  have  done,  and 
are  doing,  invaluable  service  in  their  endeavors  to 
reach,  among  other  things,  a  correct  chronological 
arrangement  of  the  different  writings  of  the  Bible. 


Truest  Bible  Study  37 

In  the  early  morning  of  my  theological  studies  I 
suddenly  awoke  to  the  importance  of  this.  Hasten- 
ing to  a  professor  who,  I  thought,  knew  about  all 
there  was  to  be  known  concerning  the  Bible,  in  inno- 
cent ignorance  I  asked  him  for  the  chronological 
arrangement  of  the  Bible.  It  was  not  until  some 
time  later  that  I  understood  why  I  did  not  get  it 
from  him.  This  suggests  another  instance.  Years 
later  I  heard  a  wise  educator  and  eminent  specialist 
in  Old  Testament  literature  teaching  a  class  begin- 
ning a  course  in  the  English  Bible.  He  asked  them 
to  bring  in  next  day  a  chronological  arrangement  of 
the  Old  Testament  writings.  I  thought,  though  it 
was  doubtless  wise,  it  was  almost  cruel.  As  a  satis- 
factory chronology  of  them  is  approximated,  we  are 
helped  to  a  truer  understanding  of  the  Bible  and  the 
related  uncanonical  literature.  We  are  thus  better 
able  to  appreciate  the  fact  of  development  in  the 
religious  views  and  life  of  the  Hebrews,  Jews,  and 
early  Christians. 

46.  In  estimating  the  worth  of  our  second  as  com- 
pared with  our  first  prerequisite  in  truest  Bible 
study,  we  must  still  put  the  emphasis  upon  common- 
sense.  It  should  be  definitely  understood,  how- 
ever, that  no  amount  of  this  will  take  the  place  of 
the  results  of  scholarship.  While  we  gladly  recog- 
nize that  wisdom  is  worth  more  than  learning,  we 
also  recognize  that  he  who  has  wisdom  will  seek  the 
benefits  of  learning.     Because  of  this,  the  next  chap- 


38  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

ters  will  be  devoted  to  some  of  the  results  of  scholar- 
ship. 

SPIRITUAL    INSIGHT 

47.  Our  third  prerequisite  in  truest  Bible  study  is 
spiritual  insight.  In  obtaining  its  religious  truths 
as  well  as  its  meanings  and  facts,  common-sense  and 
scholarship  have  their  place.  The  great  prerequisite, 
however,  is  the  less  common  spiritual  insight.  In  a 
class  in  Hebrew  some  of  us  were  trying  to  get  the 
meaning  of  a  passage  in  the  Old  Testament.  As  the 
result  was  not  very  satisfactory,  the  professor  indi- 
rectly called  us  "grammar  and  dictionary  fools," 
adding,  by  way  of  explanation,  that  they  were  the 
greatest  fools  on  earth.  Then,  in  language  the 
meaning  of  which  is  deepening  as  the  years  roll  by, 
he  said  in  substance:  "Young  gentlemen,  I  would 
rather  have  the  thoughts  of  a  spiritually  minded  old 
woman  who  reads  her  English  Bible  than  the  inter- 
pretations of  such  fishermen  as  you. "  Such  a  wo- 
man may  make  many  mistakes  about  the  author's 
meaning  and  about  the  facts  back  of  it.  Neverthe- 
less, most  valuable  truths  are  hers,  even  though  some 
of  them  are  only  suggested  by  the  Bible.  While  her 
treatment  of  the  Bible  is  certainly  not  truest  Bible 
study,  we  should  not  forget  that,  after  all,  the  great 
quest  is  for  truths. 

48.  Suggestive  here  are  the  words  of  Lowell : 

Whether  I  have  fancied  anything  into  Hamlet  which  the 
author  never  dreamed  of  putting  there  I  do  not  greatly  con- 


Truest  Bible  Study  39 

cem  myself  to  inquire.  Poets  are  always  entitled  to  a  royalty 
on  whatever  we  find  in  their  works;  for  these  fine  creations  as 
truly  build  themselves  up  in  the  brain  as  they  are  built  up 
with  deliberate  forethought.  Praise  art  as  we  will,  that  which 
the  artist  did  not  mean  to  put  into  his  work,  but  which  found 
itself  there  by  some  generous  process  of  Nature  of  which  he 
was  as  unaware  as  the  blue  river  is  of  the  rhyme  with  the 
blue  sky,  has  somewhat  in  it  that  snatches  us  into  sympathy 
with  higher  things  than  those  which  come  by  plot  and  observa- 
tion. Goethe  wrote  his  Faust  in  its  earliest  form  without  a 
thought  of  the  deeper  meaning  which  the  exposition  of  an 
age  of  criticism  was  to  find  in  it;  without  fore-meaning  it, 
he  had  impersonated  in  Mephistopheles  the  genius  of  his 
century.  Shall  this  subtract  from  the  debt  we  owe  him  ? 
Not  at  all.  If  originality  were  conscious  of  itself,  it  would  have 
lost  its  right  to  be  original. 

In  a  lecture  on  mysticism  Dr.  Robertson  Nicoll, 
after  quoting  the  above,  added: 

In  the  view  of  the  mystic,  great  divine  words  are  not  the 
prize  of  the  toiling  intellect  of  mortality;  they  are  the  gift  of 
the  Eternal  Love.  What  concerns  him  is  not  what  the  human 
authors,  who  were  the  organs  of  the  revelation,  more  or  less 
dimly  conceive  to  be  its  meaning.  He  goes  behind  all  that 
to  the  intention  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  This  the  reader  may 
find  more  truly  than  the  original  writer.  This  idea  is  most 
familiar  in  the  literature  of  mysticism. 

49.  Mysticism,  true  and  false,  we  shall  take  occa- 
sion to  consider  more  at  length  in  a  later  chapter. 
Suffice  it  now  to  write  that,  while  it  makes  much  of 
spiritual  insight,  true  mysticism  remembers  that  the 
truest  spiritual  insight  is  never  contrary  to  rational 
methods  of  interpretation.     Such  insight  might  be 


40  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

called  inspired  common-sense.  Reading  spiritual 
truths  between  the  lines  of  facts  and  opinions,  it  is 
able,  with  at  least  the  silent  consent  of  reason,  to 
bring  wondrous  things  out  of  the  Bible.  A  spiritu- 
ally minded,  though  illiterate,  old  woman  may  thus 
see  more  helpful  truths  than  are  discovered  by  an  un- 
spiritual  specialist.  Gibbon  tells  us  that  Petrarch, 
master  of  Latin  but  not  of  Greek,  was  presented 
with  a  copy  of  Homer.  He  replied:  "With  Homer 
you   should  have  given  me  yourself — a  guide  who 

could  lead  me  into  the  fields  of  light But 

alas!  Homer  is  dumb  or  I  am  deaf;  nor  is  it  in 
my  power  to  enjoy  the  beauties  which  I  possess. " 
Is  it  not  conceivable  that  an  eminent  specialist  in 
Bible  facts,  but  who  is  not  sufficiently  subject  to  the 
leadings  of  God,  on  that  account  is  unable  to  enter 
into  some  of  the  choicest  truths  ?  Though  he  may 
enter  the  temple  gate,  he  may  not  know  the  inner 
glory. 

50.  While  thus  we  must  insist  on  the  importance 
of  spiritual  insight,  we  should  clearly  understand 
that  no  amount  of  it  will  take  the  place  of  scholar- 
ship. If,  therefore,  on  the  strength  of  his  spiritual 
insight,  one  not  a  specialist  in  the  difficult,  and  in 
the  minute,  historical  and  literary  questions  makes 
dogmatic  assertions  concerning  these,  we  may  be 
pardoned  if  we  mutely  think  that  he  is  somewhat 
lacking  in  our  first  prerequisite  in  Bible  study — com- 
mon-sense.    If  in  support  of  his  view  he  claims  that 


Truest  Bible  Study  41 

the  Spirit  of  God  is  infallible,  he  may  be  asked 
if  he  himself  is  infallible  in  deciding  the  degree  and 
extent  to  which  the  Holy  Spirit  has  enlightened  him. 
Whenever  it  is  asserted  that,  if  we  were  all  guided  by 
the  Spirit,  we  should  not  disagree,  the  truth  in  the 
assertion  is  that  to  the  extent  we  are  all  guided  by 
the  Spirit  we  should  not  disagree.  Who  among  us, 
however,  is  infallible  in  deciding  the  exact  degree 
and  extent  of  our  guidance  by  the  Spirit  ?  Enough, 
perhaps,  has  been  written  to  guard  against  the  com- 
mon error  of  thinking  that,  wherever  others  do  not 
agree  with  us  concerning  the  inspiration  and  the 
interpretation  of  the  Bible,  it  is  because  they  have 
not  the  insight  of  our  spiritual  minds.  Let  us,  there- 
fore, bring  to  a  close  our  treatment  of  Bible  study, 
and  with  the  prayer  that  there  abide  with  us  com- 
mon-sense, the  results  of  scholarship,  spiritual  in- 
sight— these  three;  and  the  greatest  of  these  is 
spiritual  insight. 


PART  II 
THE  BIBLE  AND  ITS  TIMES 


CHAPTER  IV' 

GEOGRAPHY  AND  CONTEMPORANEOUS  HISTORY 

GEOGRAPHY 

51.  The  aim  of  Part  II  is  to  get  a  geographical 
and  historical  background,  and  then  to  put  against 
it  the  literature,  culture,  and  especially  the  religious 
beliefs  and  hopes,  of  the  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  early 
Christians.  First,  then,  a  lesson  in  geography. 
What  follows  should  be  read  with  the  use  of  the 
maps  which  may  be  found  here,  in  Bibles  and  else- 
where. It  will  greatly  aid  us  in  the  attainment  of 
our  purpose  if  we  fix  in  mind  three  river  territories. 
The  first  is  that  about  the  Nile;  the  second,  that 
about  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris;  the  third,  that 
about  the  Jordan.  While  the  Tigris  and  Euphra- 
tes unite  less  than  one  hundred  miles  before  reach- 
ing the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Nile,  about  one  hundred 
miles  from  its  mouths,  divides.  Its  two  arms,  to- 
gether with  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  inclose  the  very 
fertile  triangle  called  the  Delta.  South  of  this,  con- 
tinuing five  hundred  miles  to  the  first  cataract,  and 
with  the  desert  on  either  side,  is  a  narrow,  fertile  ter- 
ritory annually  enriched  by  the  overflowing  of  the 
Nile.  Fertile  Egypt,  therefore,  like  the  Nile,  is  in 
shape,  somewhat  like  a  great  broom.     The  territory 

'  See  fourth  paragraph  of  the  Preface. 
45 


46  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

between  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  is  shaped  some- 
what like  a  human  foot,  with  the  toes  reaching  to 
the  mountains  of  Armenia. 

52.  If  from  the  heel  of  this  foot  a  straight  line  were 
drawn  to  where  the  crooked  handle  fits  into  the  brush 
of  the  Egyptian  broom  (a  distance  of  about  one 
thousand  miles),  it  would  not  even  touch  the  land  of 
Palestine.  A  knowledge  of  the  country,  however, 
shows  that  between  the  civilization  of  the  Nile  and 
that  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  the  natural  route, 
in  war  or  peace,  was  near,  or  through,  the  territory 
of  the  Jordan.  The  reason  is  that  the  direct  route 
would  be  almost  altogether  through  the  desert. 
Three-fourths  of  it  would  be  in  the  great  Arabian 
Desert.  The  other  fourth  would  be  in  the  continua- 
tion of  that  desert  westward  between  Palestine  and 
Sinai,  and  into  Africa  up  to  the  narrow  territory  of 
the  Nile  itself.  The  Arabian  Desert  is  continued 
northward  also  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Jor- 
dan, and  considerably  farther  north  than  the  Jordan. 
With  the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  one  side  and  this 
great  sea  of  desert  on  the  other,  the  country  about 
the  Jordan  was  the  natural  isthmus  between  Asia 
and  Africa.  In  the  study  of  Bible  times  and  thought 
it  is  important  to  keep  in  mind  the  natural  relation 
that  Palestine  had  with  the  early  civilizations  of  the 
world. 

53.  Going  northwest  from  the  Persian  Gulf,  we 
have,  as  the  river  territory  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphra- 


Geography  and  Contemporaneous  History         47 

tes,  Babylonia,  Assyria,  and  Mesopotamia.  West  of 
the  Euphrates,  between  Mesopotamia  and  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  was  Syria.  Northwest  of  this,  and 
reaching  out  to  Europe,  was  Asia  Minor.  This, 
with  southern  Europe,  was  the  scene  of  much  of 
Paul's  work.  It  took  a  prominent  place  in  the  early 
history  of  the  church.  In  the  southern  part  of  Syria 
were  the  Anti-Lebanon  and  the  Lebanon  Moun- 
tains, parallel  to  each  other  and  to  the  coast  plain 
of  Phoenicia.  The  Anti-Lebanons  from  Mount 
Hermon  were  continued  in  the  highlands  east  of  the 
Jordan  down  to  Mount  Hor  and  were  lost  in  the 
Arabian  Desert.  The  valley  between  the  Lebanons 
was  continued  in  the  Jordan  valley,  which  itself,  in 
the  depression  called  the  Arabah,  was  continued  to 
the  Red  Sea.  The  Lebanon  range,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  an  important  break  in  the  north,  was  con- 
tinued, in  the  highlands  west  of  the  Jordan,  down 
through  the  south  (Negeb)  until  it  also  fell  into  the 
desert,  to  rise  again,  however,  in  the  mountains  of 
Sinai.  The  break  in  the  north  looks  like  the  result 
of  a  blow  from  a  geological  giant — a  blow  that 
swung  the  lower  end  of  the  break  (with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  hills  of  Gilboa,  Little  Hermon,  and 
Tabor)  so  that  it  abruptly  met  the  sea  in  Mount 
Carmel.  Between  this  and  the  Jordan  there  was 
thus  left  the  triangular,  fertile  plain  of  Esdraelon,  or 
Jezreel.  The  coast  plain  of  Phoenicia,  with  almost 
a  complete  break  at  Carmel,  was  continued  in  the 


48  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

fertile  plain  of  Sharon  and  Philistia,  and  through  the 
isthmus  of  Suez,  to  Egypt.  The  central  ridge  de- 
scended in  foothills  to  this  maritime  plain. 

54.  Rising  at  the  snow-capped  Hermon,  the  Jor- 
dan flows  through  the  beautiful  pear-shaped  Sea  of 
Galilee.  This  is  about  twelve  miles  long  and  but 
eight  miles  wide  at  its  widest  part.  The  Dead  Sea, 
into  which  the  Jordan  empties,  has  no  outlet  save  by 
evaporation.  This  is  due  largely  to  the  strange  fact 
that  the  surface  of  this  so-called  sea  is  about  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  below  the  level  of  the  ocean.  It  is  this 
great  depression  that  makes  the  winding,  unnavi- 
gable  Jordan  so  rapid  and  gives  a  tropical  vegetation 
to  the  lower  part  of  its  valley.  From  Dan  to  Beer- 
sheba  (a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
from  north  to  south),  Palestine,  west  of  the  Jordan, 
increased  in  width  from  twenty-five  to  ninety  miles. 
Though  considerably  larger  than  eastern  Palestine, 
its  area  was  only  about  six  thousand  square  miles — 
i.  e.,  less  than  that  of  Wales  or  of  the  small  state  of 
Massachusetts.  On  its  central  ridge,  west  of  where 
the  Jordan  emptied  into  the  Dead  Sea,  was  Jerusa- 
lem. Taking  this  as  a  center  and  drawing  a  number 
of  circles  with  the  use  of  the  hundred-mile  scale 
(marked  on  most  maps),  we  find  that  Tyre  in  Phoe- 
nicia is  distant  about  one  hundred,  Alexandria  in  the 
west  of  the  Delta  and  Antioch  on  the  north  of  Syria 
over  three  hundred,  and  Babylon  on  the  Euphrates 
and  Nineveh  on  the  Tigris  over  five  hundred  miles 


Geography  and  Contemporaneous  History         49 

from  Jerusalem.  In  the  case  of  the  first  three  the 
actual  route  would  be  much  nearer  the  direct  dis- 
tance than  in  the  case  of  the  last  two.  The  actual 
route  to  Babylon,  for  instance,  must  have  been 
about  twice  as  long  as  it  would  have  been  had  it 
gone  directly  across  the  desert. 

SEMITIC   HISTORY 

55.  From  geography  we  pass  to  history.  Of  the 
two  divisions  of  mankind  with  which  our  present  his- 
torical study  is  especially  concerned,  Professor  J.  F. 
McCurdy  writes: 

Our  historical,  intellectual,  and  moral  gains  from  the  past 
are,  broadly  speaking,  the  resultant  of  two  great  deposits  of 
thought  and  sentiment,  the  one  the  gift  of  the  Aryan,  the 
other  a  boon  from  the  Semitic  race.  To  the  former  we  owe, 
again  speaking  generally,  most  of  our  mental  and  political 
acquisitions;  to  the  latter,  the  principal  elements  of  our  moral 
and  spiritual  heritage. 

The  Aryan-speaking  peoples  include  the  Hindus, 
Persians,  and  Armenians  in  Asia;  and  the  Greeks 
Latins,  Celts,  Anglo-Saxons,  Goths,  Slavs,  etc.,  in 
Europe.  The  Semites  include,  besides  the  modern 
Arabs,  the  ancient  Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  the 
Arameans  of  both  Mesopotamia  and  Syria,  the  Phoe- 
nicians and  Canaanites,  and  the  Hebrews,  with  their 
kinsfolk,  the  Ammonites,  Moabites,  and  Edomites. 

56.  What  were  the  Egyptians  ?  There  has  been, 
and  still  is,  considerable  difference  of  opinion  con- 
cerning the  place  of  Semitic  elements.   Remembering 


50  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

that  Libya  was  west  of  the  lower  Nile,  Dr.  Morris 
Jastrow's  words  are  suggestive: 

It  is  not  surprising,  in  view  of  the  location  of  Egypt,  thus 
open  to  invasion  from  two  sides,  that  its  population  was  of 
a  mixed  character.  If  one  may  judge  from  the  language  of 
Egypt,  the  substratum  of  which  has  now  been  ascertained  to 
be  Semitic,  the  basis  of  the  population  is  likewise  Semitic; 
but  both  language  and  people  are  largely  mixed  with  "Ham- 
itic"  elements,  more  particularly  Libyan.  This  element  in 
the  course  of  time  appears  to  obtain  the  mastery,  despite  the 
frequent  Semitic  immigrations  into  Egypt,  and  to  such  an 
extent  indeed  that  both  the  people  and  the  language  retain 
but  a  few  Semitic  traits. 

Dr.  Jastrow  classes  the  Amalekites  and  the  Midian- 
ites  as  Semitic,  assumes  that  the  Girgashites,  Hiv- 
ites,  Jebusites,  and  Perizzites  (Ex.  34:11;  Gen.  15: 
20,  21)  were  Semitic  groups  allied  to  the  Canaanites, 
refers  to  the  Amorites  and  the  Hittites  as  doubtful, 
and  agrees  with  the  view  that  the  Philistines  were 
Aryan  pirates  who  settled  in  Palestine. 

57.  The  territory  of  the  closely  related  Babylo- 
nians and  Assyrians  was  that  about  the  lower  and 
middle  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  These  were  two  of 
the  rivers  mentioned  in  the  account  of  the  Garden 
of  Eden.  By  means  of  canals  the  lands  of  the  lower 
part  of  them  became  rich  kingdoms,  which  in  time 
were  united  under  Babylon.  Before  this,  however, 
some  of  the  people  had  moved  northward,  where 
later  they  founded  Nineveh  on  the  Tigris.  These, 
known  as  Assyrians,  in  time  wrested   from   Baby- 


Geography  and  Contemporaneous  History         51 

Ion  the  supremacy,  which  centuries  later  they  in 
turn  were  compelled  to  yield  to  the  Chaldeans. 
This  gives  us,  as  the  three  important  periods  of  its 
ancient  history,  the  Babylonian,  the  Assyrian,  and 
the  Chaldean  or  New  Babylonian.  The  importance 
of  the  study  of  this  history  is  suggested  by  the  words 
of  an  Old  Testament  scholar: 

The  prophets  of  Israel  are  full  of  references  to  Assyrian 
and  Babylonian  affairs,  and  are  often  unintelligible  without 
regard  to  the  revelations  of  Assyriology.  The  Babylonian 
psalms  offer  much  to  elucidate  those  in  our  Psalter,  which 
they  often  resemble  in  form,  in  tone,  and  in  expression. 

58.  Among  the  important  names  in  the  Old  Baby- 
lonian period  are  Sargon,  his  son  Naram-Sin,  and 
Hammurabi.  Sargon  is  said  to  have  carried  his  con- 
quests to  the  Mediterranean  and  to  have  included 
Palestine.  From  the  time  of  Hammurabi  dates  the 
pre-eminence  of  Babylon  over  the  other  cities  of  the 
territory.  The  ruins  of  these  ancient  cities  in  time 
became  but  mounds.  In  modern  times  the  excava- 
tion of  these  and  of  similar  mounds  in  Egypt,  Pales- 
tine, etc.,  has  given  much  insight  into  those  early 
times.  One  of  the  greatest  finds,  however,  was  not 
through  excavations.  It  belongs  to  the  rule  of  Ham- 
murabi, but  was  not  discovered  until  the  present 
century.  It  was  some  pieces  of  black  stone  that, 
when  put  together  again,  made  a  monument  be- 
tween seven  and  eight  feet  high.  On  it  was  inscribed 
in  three  or  four  thousand  lines  the  now  famous  law 


52  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

code  that  has  been  called  the  oldest  code  of  laws  in 
the  world.  It  has  a  score,  or  more,  enactments  simi- 
lar to  Ex.  20:22 — 23:33.  As  has  already  been  no- 
ticed, it  has  also  a  representation  of  the  Babylonian 
sun-god  Shamash,  "judge  of  heaven  and  earth," 
who  is  represented  as  in  the  act  of  giving  the  law  to 
Hammurabi,  much  as  Jehovah  is  described  as  giving 
the  law  to  Moses.  The  significance  of  this  is  seen 
when  we  remember  that  Hammurabi  and  his  monu- 
ment were  in  existence  before  the  time  of  Moses. 

59.  In  Assyrian  history,  beginning  back  a  thou- 
sand years  or  so  before  Christ,  we  find,  among  other 
rulers,  some  Tiglath-pilesers  and  Shalmanesers,  fol- 
lowed by  another  great  Sargon,  his  son  Sennache- 
rib, his  grandson  Esarhaddon,  and  his  great-grand- 
son Assur-bani-pal  (Sardanapalus).  Assur-bani-pal's 
library,  with  its  famous  clay  tablets  which  were 
discovered  by  Layard  about  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  has  thrown  much  light  on  both  the 
Assyrian  and  the  Old  Babylonian  periods.  George 
Smith  and  others  have  found  much  in  the  Assyrian 
tablets  that  is  strikingly  similar  to  the  accounts  of 
creation,  of  the  flood,  etc.,  as  given  in  Genesis.  The 
account  concerning  the  early  exposure  and  later  suc- 
cess of  Moses  is  paralleled  by  an  account  of  the  early 
Babylonian  Sargon  who,  like  Hammurabi,  lived  be- 
fore the  time  of  Moses. 

60.  One  of  the  rulers  of  the  New  Babylonian 
empire  was  Nebuchadrezzar.     Besides  his  military 


Geography  and  Contemporaneous  History         53 

achievements,  he  made  Babylon  one  of  the  greatest 
cities  of  antiquity.  Another  ruler,  Nabonidus,  let 
his  son  Belshazzar  govern  Babylon,  because  he  him- 
self was  more  of  a  builder  and  antiquarian.  He 
reckoned  that  3200  years  before  his  time — i.  e., 
about  3750  B.  c. — was  the  date  of  Naram-Sin  of  the 
Old  Babylonian  period.  The  culture  of  Naram-Sin's 
time  implies  what  excavations  of  remains  from  still 
earlier  times  confirm — many  centuries  of  still  earlier 
civilization.  However  the  figures  of  Nabonidus  may 
be  quahfied,  that  early  civilization  was  in  existence 
long  before  4004  b.  c. — the  date  of  creation  accord- 
ing to  Ussher's  chronology. 

61.  Throughout  the  three  periods  we  have  been 
considering  there  was  contact,  and  frequent  conflict, 
west  of  the  Euphrates,  with  Arameans,  Canaanites, 
Hebrews,  Egyptians,  etc.  East  of  the  Tigris  there 
was  contact  with  different  peoples.  Among  these 
were  the  Medcs  and  the  Persians,  by  whom,  under 
Cyrus,  Babylon  was  taken  from  Belshazzar.  After 
Persian  supremacy  came  first  that  of  Greece  and 
then  that  of  Rome. 

62.  Under  the  name  of  Syrians,  whose  chief  deity 
was  Hadad,  the  Arameans  frequently  came  in  con- 
tact with  Palestine,  northeast  of  which  was  their 
important  center,  Damascus.  While  mainly  a  pas- 
toral people,  many  of  them  became  traders.  Be- 
cause of  this  and  their  location,  when  the  Babylonian 
and  Hebrew  tongues  declined,  the  Aramaic  became 


54  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

the  language  of  the  people  in  the  whole  territory  of 
the  northern  Semites;  and,  despite  the  inroads  of 
other  languages,  it  was  the  people's  tongue  in  Pales- 
tine in  the  time  of  Christ,  and  even  until  Moham- 
medan times.  The  Phoenicians  settled  on  the  coast 
land  west  of  the  Lebanons.  The  limited  extent  of 
this  strip  seems  to  have  compelled  them  to  become 
on  the  water  what  the  Arameans  were  on  the  land. 
They  became  the  traders  and  colonizers  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  closely  related  Canaanites  settled 
in  Palestine,  to  make  it  "a  land  flowing  with  milk 
and  honey. "  Of  the  peoples  closest  akin  to  the  He- 
brews, the  Edomites  roved  south  of  Canaan.  The 
Ammonites,  whose  chief  deity  was  Molech  (Mil com), 
and  the  Moabites,  whose  deity  was  Chemosh,  lived 
between  the  Jordan  and  the  desert.  The  Hebrews 
themselves,  having  Jehovah  as  their  deity,  settled 
partly  on  the  east,  but  mainly  on  the  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan. They  thus  settled  among  the  Canaanites, 
whose  Baal-worship  was  especially  connected  with 
the  agriculture  that  the  Hebrews  learned  from  them. 

EGYPTIAN  HISTORY 

63.  Before  passing  to  a  summary  of  the  history  of 
the  Hebrews,  something  needs  to  be  written  about 
the  history  of  Egypt.  In  a  very  suggestive  para- 
graph in  his  recent  History  of  Egypt,  Professor 
James  H.  Breasted  writes: 

After  an  archaic  age  of  primitive  civilization,  and  a  period 
of  small  and  local  kingdoms,  the  various  centers  of  civiliza- 


Geography  and  Contemporaneous  History         55 

tion  on  the  Nile  gradually  coalesced  into  two  kingdoms: 
one  comprising  the  valley  down  to  the  Delta,  and  the  other 
made  up  of  the  Delta  itself.  In  the  Delta  civilization  rapidly 
advanced,  and  the  calendar  year  of  365  days  was  introduced 
in  4241  B.  c,  the  earliest  fixed  date  in  the  history  of  the  world 
as  known  to  us.  A  long  development,  as  the  "  Two  Lands," 
which  left  their  imprint  forever  after  on  the  civilization  of  later 
centuries,  preceded  a  united  Egypt,  which  emerged  upon  our 
historic  horizon  at  the  consolidation  of  the  two  kingdoms 
into  one  nation  under  Menes  about  3400  B.  c.  His  accession 
marks  the  beginning  of  the  dynasties,  and  the  preceding, 
earliest  period  may  be  conveniently  designated  as  the  pre- 
dynastic  age. 

Several  centuries  before  Christ  Manetho,  a  native 
priest,  wrote  of  thirty-one  dynasties.  Of  the  dura- 
tion and  events  of  some  of  these  little  is  known.  For 
convenience,  scholars  have  divided  the  early  part  of 
this  history  into  Old,  Middle,  and  New  Kingdoms 
(or  Empires)  that  by  obscure  intervals  of  uncertain 
lengths  are  separated  from  one  another  and  from  the 
subsequent  periods.  These  periods  were  that  of 
the  foreign  rule,  that  of  the  Restoration,  and  those 
called  the  Persian,  the  Greek,  and  the  Roman.  As 
an  aid  to  memory  it  may  be  well  to  note  that  the 
Sixth  Dynasty  was  the  last  of  the  Old  Kingdom, 
that  the  Twelfth  was  important  in  the  Middle 
Kingdom,  and  that  the  Eighteenth  began  the  New 
Kingdom. 

64.  The  Old  Kingdom  leaves  "as  its  witness  the 
irregular  line  of  pyramids  which  stretch  for  forty 
miles  along  the  margin  of  the  desert  on  the  west  side 


56  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

of  the  Nile  from  the  apex  of  the  Delta  southward. " 
The  Middle  Kingdom  also  left  pyramids,  and  other 
great  works,  and  extended  its  sway  above  the  second 
cataract.  This  was  a  period  of  literary  activity. 
During  the  New  Kingdom,  of  which  Thebes  was  the 
center,  Palestine  a-nd  Syria  were  conquered,  and  the 
empire  was  enlarged  until  it  extended  from  the  upper 
Euphrates  to  the  third  cataract.  Some  of  the  cap- 
tives were  employed  in  building  in  a  way  at  least 
suggesting  the  biblical  account  of  the  Hebrew  build- 
ers. Prominent  as  a  ruler  in  the  New  Empire  was 
the  idealized  Ramses  II,  commonly  looked  upon  as 
the  builder  of  Pithom  (Ex.  i:ii),  and  so  as  the 
oppressing  "Pharaoh"  of  that  chapter.  To  the 
New  Kingdom  belong  the  hundreds  of  clay  tablets 
that  were  unearthed  in  1887  from  the  ruins  of  El- 
Amarna  in  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Nile.  They  were  written  in  the  cuneiform  (wedge- 
shaped)  writing  of  the  Assyrians  rather  than  in  the 
hieroglyphics  (picture-writing)  of  the  Egyptians. 
Some  of  these  are  letters  from  the  rulers  of  Baby- 
lonia, Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Asia  Minor, 
and  Palestine.  These  famous  tablets  throw  light 
upon  the  condition  of  Palestine  before  the  Hebrews 
entered  it. 

65.  In  the  period  of  foreign  rule  the  Assyrian  con- 
querors marched  into  Upper  Egypt  and  destroyed 
Thebes  itself.  Then  the  civil  war  in  the  East  that  re- 
sulted in  the  supremacy  of  the  Chaldeans  gave  Egypt 


Geography  and  Contemporaneous  History         57 

an  opportunity  to  drive  out  the  Assyrians.  This  was 
the  period  of  the  Restoration,  during  which  the 
Egyptians  again  overran  the  territory  between  the 
Nile  and  the  Euphrates.  Defeating  Josiah,  Judah's 
king,  at  Megiddo  on  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  they 
were  routed  at  Carchemish  on  the  Euphrates  by 
Nebuchadrezzar,  then  crown  prince  of  the  New 
Babylonian  or  Chaldean  empire.  As  a  result  the 
Egyptians  were  driven  back  beyond  Palestine.  With 
the  son  of  the  Cyrus  that  conquered  the  Chaldeans  the 
Persian  period  began  in  Egypt.  The  Greek  period 
begun  by  Alexander,  by  whom  the  city  of  Alexan- 
dria was  founded,  was  continued  by  the  Ptolemies. 
Queen  Cleopatra,  the  last  of  these,  and  the  Roman 
Antony,  whom  she  had  infatuated,  were  defeated  by 
the  Romans  decades  before  Christ.  From  that  time 
Egypt  was  under  the  control  of  Rome  or  Constanti- 
nople until  it  was  taken  by  the  Mohammedans. 


CHAPTER  V 

HISTORY  OF  HEBREWS,  JEWS,  AND  EARLY 
CHRISTIANS 

INTRODUCTORY 

66.  In  the  history  of  the  people  of  Jehovah,  if 
there  is  one  date  that  needs  to  be  kept  in  mind,  it  is 
586  B.  c.  This  comes  in  the  midst  of  the  short  pe- 
riods of  the  Restoration  in  Egypt  and  of  the  New 
Babylonian  empire.  It  is  the  date  of  that  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  that  was  followed  by  the  Great 
Captivity.  All  the  rest  of  the  history  may  be  repre- 
sented as  coming  before  or  after  that  date,  which 
thus  divides  it  into  two  periods. 

BEFORE    586   B.  C. 

67.  There  are  some  much-discussed  questions 
concerning  the  early  part  of  the  first  period.  What 
was  the  origin  of  the  Hebrews  and  their  kinfolk,  the 
Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  Edomites?  What  the 
meaning  and  importance  of  the  fourteenth  chapter  of 
Genesis?  What  do  the  patriarchal  stories  give  or 
imply  concerning  the  early  history  of  the  Hebrew 
tribes?  Just  what  was  the  relation  of  these  tribes 
with  Egypt  ?  What  place  had  Moses  in  the  making 
of  the  nation  and  in  the  molding  of  the  religious  life 
and  thought  of  his  people  ?  What  their  experiences 
before  entering  Canaan?    What  the  relation  be- 

58 


History  0}  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians    59 

tween  the  temple  and  the  account  of  the  tabernacle 
in  the  wilderness?  Having  fought  their  way  to  a 
foothold  in  Canaan,  they  passed  from  the  nomadic 
to  the  agricultural  stage  in  their  development.  At 
first  their  leaders  were  the  judges,  who  arose  as 
deliverers  in  times  of  special  need.  Then,  over  a 
thousand  years  before  Christ,  the  lists  of  kings  began 
with  Saul.  He  was  followed  by  David.  David's 
son  and  successor,  Solomon,  built  a  magnificent 
temple  in  Jerusalem.  In  his  reign  the  nation  had 
already  entered  the  commercial  life  in  which  as  a 
people  they  have  been  so  successful  through  the 
ages  since. 

68.  In  the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  Solomon's  son  and 
successor,  the  kingdom  was  divided  into  two  king- 
doms. The  territory  of  Judah,  the  southern  king- 
dom, extended  only  a  little  north  of  Jerusalem,  its 
capital.  The  much  larger  territory  of  Israel  (the 
ten  tribes)  on  the  north,  was  sometimes  given  the 
name  of  its  strongly  fortified  capital  Samaria.  (In 
the  time  of  Christ,  when  western  Palestine  was 
divided  into  three  parts,  Judea  was  on  the  south, 
Galilee,  including  Esdraelon,  on  the  north,  and  Sa- 
maria between  them.)  It  is  well  to  keep  in  mind 
that  a  most  important  part  of  the  great  route  be- 
tween the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates  went  through  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  and  so  through  Israel.  No  such 
important  route  went  through  Judah.  The  geog- 
raphy and  the  topography  of  Israel  made  it  much 


6o  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

more  exposed  to  attack  than  was  Judah.  This 
explains  its  earlier  fall,  and  the  fact  that  the  history 
of  the  two  centuries  of  its  existence  after  it  became 
a  separate  kingdom  is  largely  a  history  of  wars  and 
alliances  with  Judah,  Syria  (Damascus),  Assyria, 
Phoenicia,  and  Egypt.  Its  fortunes  varied  from 
great  prosperity  under  Jeroboam  II  to  disaster  under 
Hoshea. 

69.  It  was  in  the  period  of  foreign  rule  in  Egypt, 
when  that  country,  having  lost  Palestine,  was  seek- 
ing again  and  again  to  regain  it,  that  Israel  under 
Hoshea,  unwisely  in  league  with  Egypt,  was  sub- 
dued by  the  Assyrians,  who  after  a  long  siege  took 
Samaria.  This  was  in  the  very  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  Sargon,  who  in  December,  722  b.  c,  succeeded 
the  king  referred  to  in  II  Kings  17:3:  "In  the  ninth 
year  of  Hoshea,  the  king  of  Assyria  took  Samaria, 
and  carried  Israel  away  unto  Assyria,  and  placed 
them  in  Halah,  and  in  Habor,  on  the  river  of  Gozan, 
and  in  the  cities  of  the  Medes. "  II  Kings  17:6, 
together  with  Sargon's  inscription  concerning  Sa- 
maria, "I  led  forth  27,290  of  those  who  dwelt  in  the 
midst  of  it,"  show  that  the  ten  tribes  were  never 
"lost"  in  the  mysterious  way  that  some  theorists 
have  supposed.  Those  who  remained,  in  uniting 
with  those  who  were  brought  in  (II  Kings  17:24  and 
Ezra  4:2,  9,  10),  formed  the  Samaritan  race.  Of 
this  race  a  small  remnant,  now  living  at  Nablus 
(Shechem),  still  worships  Jehovah  on  Mount  Geri- 


History  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians    6i 

zim.  As  Galilee,  the  northern  and  more  exposed 
part  of  Israel,  submitted  more  readily  than  Samaria, 
the  southern  part,  fewer  of  its  inhabitants  were  de- 
ported, and  there  was  less  union  with  foreigners. 
Hence,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  the  Galileans  had  more 
dealings  with  the  purer-blooded  Jews  of  Judah  than 
was  permitted  to  the  Samaritans. 

70.  It  was  not  until  considerably  more  than  a 
century  after  Samaria,  the  capital  of  the  northern 
kingdom,  was  taken  by  Sargon,  the  Assyrian,  that 
Jerusalem,  the  capital  of  the  southern  kingdom,  was 
destroyed  by  Nebuchadrezzar,  the  Chaldean.  Just 
two  decades  after  the  fall  of  Samaria,  Jerusalem 
was  marvelously  saved  from  the  Assyrians  under 
Sennacherib,  Sargon' s  son  and  successor.  His  army, 
in  its  great  invasion  of  the  West,  was  victorious  as  far 
as  the  Delta.  In  621,  just  a  century  after  the  fall  of 
Samaria,  occurred  the  memorable  incident  referred 
to  in  II  Kings  22:8.  The  law  thus  given,  which 
was  at  least  very  like  that  in  Deuteronomy,  played 
a  prominent  part  in  the  reforms  of  the  good  king 
Josiah.  His  death,  in  609,  in  the  battle  of  Megiddo 
in  Esdraelon,  where  he  was  defeated  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, was  a  great  blow  to  those  reforms.  A  few 
years  later  the  Egyptians  themselves  were  defeated 
by  Nebuchadrezzar,  the  Chaldean,  who  in  586  b.  c. 
destroyed  Jerusalem  and  carried  off  many  of  the 
Jews  to  Babylonia.  Though,  a  decade  or  so  earlier, 
the  king,  Ezekiel  the  prophet,  and  others  had  also 


62  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

been  deported,  it  was  not  until  586  b.  c.  that  the 
Hebrew  nation,  as  a  nation,  came  to  an  end. 

AFTER    586   B.  C. 

71.  The  history  subsequent  to  586  b.  c.  we  think 
of  as  the  history  of  the  Jewish  people.  It  began 
with  the  half-century  of  Babylonian  captivity.  It 
closed  (as  far  as  Bible  times  are  concerned)  in  the 
period  of  Roman  rule,  which  began  in  63  b.  c.  Be- 
tween the  Babylonian  and  Roman  periods  there 
were  three  periods,  the  duration  of  which  can  easily 
be  remembered;  for  there  were  two  centuries  of 
Persian  rule,  one  and  one-half  of  Greek,  and  one  of 
Maccabean,  which  was  Jewish,  In  the  Persian  pe- 
riod, which  began  with  the  taking  of  Babylon  by 
Cyrus  in  538  b.  c,  different  companies  of  Jews,  in- 
cluding Zerrubbabel,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah,  returned 
to  Palestine  and  formed  in  Judea  a  Persian  colony. 
There,  in  Jerusalem,  they  built  the  second  temple. 

72.  The  Greek  period  followed  the  great  victory 
of  Alexander  the  Great  over  the  Persians,  at  Issus, 
in  333  B.  c.  Of  the  different  divisions  of  his  empire 
after  his  death,  Syria  was  ruled  by  the  Seleucidae, 
and  Egypt  by  the  Ptolemies,  until  both  were  con- 
quered by  Rome.  Palestine  was  ruled  now  by  the 
Ptolemies  and  now  by  the  Seleucidae,  until  the  time 
of  the  Maccabees.  Under  Greek  rule  the  Jews,  like 
other  peoples  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
were  more  or  less  hellenized — a  word  derived  from 


History  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians    63 

"Hellas,"  a  name  for  Greece.  Large  numbers  of 
them  dispersed  as  traders,  captives,  etc.,  and,  form- 
ing colonies  outside  of  Palestine  (in  Alexandria,  etc.), 
spoke  what  is  called  Hellenistic,  or  mixed,  Greek,  as 
distinguished  from  Hellenic,  or  classical,  Greek. 
Into  this  their  sacred  writings  were  translated.  The 
Septuagint  (the  word  for  "seventy,"  and  so  often 
written  LXX),  the  translation  of  which  was  begun 
less  than  three  centuries  before  Christ,  was  the  Hel- 
lenistic version  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  more  or  less 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  other  Jewish  writings. 
This  version  had  great  influence  in  the  production 
of  the  New  Testament,  which  also  was  written  in 
the  Hellenistic  Greek.  The  Hellenists,  or  Grecian 
Jews,  are  distinguished  in  the  New  Testament  both 
from  the  Greeks  and  from  "the  Hebrews"  (Acts 
6:1),  who,  however,  spoke  in  Aramaic.  This,  which 
was  the  language  of  Jesus,  is  called  "Syrian"  in 
Isa.  36 : 1 1 .  It  would  seem  that  even  before  the 
exile  Aramaic  was  known  in  official  circles  in  Jeru- 
salem. 

73.  Though  the  Jews,  with  their  genius  for  reli- 
gion, had  made  many  proselytes  to  their  superior 
faith,  yet,  surrounded  by  Greek  cities  and,  doubtless, 
influenced  by  the  visits  of  Grecian  Jews,  even  Ju- 
dea  (including  Jerusalem  itself)  became  consider- 
ably hellenized.  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  one  of  the 
Seleucidae,  determined  to  carry  this  to  the  extreme 
of  forcing  the  Jews  to  repudiate  their  religion.     He 


64  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

erected  an  altar  of  Jupiter  (an  "abomination  of 
desolation")  upon  the  altar  of  burnt-offering.  It 
was  the  sacrifice  there  of  a  sow,  in  169,  that  occa- 
sioned the  successful  revolt  led  by  the  priestly  Asmo- 
nean  family  afterward  named  the  Maccabee"  A 
century  or  more  before  Christ  these  conquered 
Idumea  (Edom)  and  compelled  their  kinsfolk,  the 
Idumeans,  to  adopt  Judaism.  Antipater  (or  Anti- 
pas),  a  wealthy,  forceful  Idumean,  was  made  gov- 
ernor of  Idumea  by  one  of  the  Maccabees;  and 
through  his  shrewdness  became  the  power  behind 
the  Maccabean  throne.  In  the  midst  of  strife  among 
the  Maccabees,  Pompey  took  Jerusalem  for  Rome 
in  63  B.  c. 

74.  Judea  became  a  small  Roman  province,  which 
was  ruled,  not  by  a  proconsul  or  legate,  but  by  a 
procurator,  save  when  it  was  permitted  to  be  a 
kingdom  under  a  native  king.  The  legate  of  the 
province  of  Syria  seems  to  have  had  some  power 
over  the  procurator  of  Judea,  which  at  length  be- 
came part  of  the  Syrian  province.  Antipater,  who 
was  father  of  Herod  the  Great,  like  the  Herods  had 
a  wonderful  power  of  winning  the  favor  of  the  Ro- 
man rulers.  He  was  made  procurator  of  western 
Palestine.  His  son,  Herod,  became  governor  of 
Samaria.  After  his  father  was  murdered,  Herod, 
narrowly  escaping  from  the  Maccabean  family  into 
which  he  had  married,  fled  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
given  the  title  of  "king  of  Judea. "     He  became  king 


History  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians    65 

in  reality  by  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  three  years 
later,  37  b.  c.  In  20  b.  c.  he  began  to  rebuild  the 
temple.  The  most  sacred  part  was  finished  in  eight 
years.  The  temple  as  a  whole,  however,  was  not 
completed  until  some  time  after  Christ's  death,  only 
to  be  destroyed  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in 
70  A.  D.  Herod  ruled  over  a  territory  like  that  of 
David  and  Solomon,  with  a  firm  but  bloody  hand, 
until  his  death  in  4  b.  c. 

75.  Though  in  4  b.  c,  the  death  of  Herod  was 
after  the  birth  of  Jesus.  It  seems  strange,  since 
"B.C."  means  ''before  Christ" — i.e.,  before  his 
birth — that  Jesus  was  born  some  years  b.  c.  The 
explanation  is  that  not  until  over  five  centuries  after 
Christ  was  it  decided  to  take  the  date  of  Christ's 
birth  as  the  beginning  of  the  system  of  reckoning 
events.  Before  that  there  had  been  different  non- 
Christian  systems,  one  of  which  was  that  beginning 
with  the  year  that  was  supposed  to  be  the  date  of 
the  founding  of  Rome.  A.  u.  c.  stood  for  ab  urbe 
condita  —  i.e.,  "after  the  city  was  founded."  In 
making  the  Christian  system  it  was  thought  that 
Christ  was  born  754  a.  u.  c.  As  it  was  not  until 
centuries  afterward  that  it  was  found  this  date  was 
some  years  too  late,  it  was  easier  to  change  the  few 
dates  of  Christ's  life  and  to  say  that  he  was  born 
before  b.  c,  than  to  change  the  many  dates  that  had 
become  fixed  by  the  mistake. 

76.  After  the  death  of  Herod  the  territory  was 


66  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

divided  among  three  of  his  sons — Archelaus,  Herod 
Antipas,  and  Philip — with  the  title  of  either  "eth- 
narch"  ("ruler  of  a  people")  or  "tetrarch"  ("ruler 
of  a  fourth  part").  Archelaus  (Matt.  2:22)  became 
ethnarch  of  Judea,  Samaria,  and  Idumea  (Edom), 
but  in  6  A.  D.  he  was  deposed  for  misrule.  His  ter- 
ritory was  then  ruled  by  Roman  procurators,  among 
whom  were  Pontius  Pilate,  Felix,  and  Festus.  Her- 
od Antipas,  frequently  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, was  tetrarch  of  Galilee  and  of  Perea,  which 
was  east  of  the  Jordan.  Philip  (Luke  3:1)  was 
tetrarch  of  Trachonitis  and  Iturea,  north  and  east  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Herodias,  mother  of  Salome, 
was  a  granddaughter  of  Herod  the  Great,  whose 
grandson,  Agrippa  I  (Acts,  chap.  12),  in  becoming 
king  of  Judea,  ruled  for  a  few  years  over  the  same 
territory  as  his  grandfather.  Bernice  (Acts  25:26) 
and  Drusilla  (Acts  24:24),  wife  of  Felix,  were 
daughters  of  Agrippa  I.  With  the  death  of  his  son, 
Agrippa  II  (Acts,  chaps.  25  and  26),  about  the  end 
of  the  century,  the  rule  of  the  Herods  came  to  an 
end.  They  had  helped  to  hellenize  Judaism,  and 
had  given  Palestine  a  political  and  social  place  alto- 
gether out  of  proportion  to  its  size. 

77.  The  success  of  the  Herods  was  due  largely  to 
their  influence  with  the  changing  authorities  at 
Rome.  Of  these,  Octavius  Caesar,  the  first  emperor, 
was  ruling  at  the  birth  of  Jesus,  whose  public  min- 
istry   was    under    the    second    emperor,    Tiberius. 


History  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians    67 

After  Caligula  and  Claudius  came  Nero.  When 
Vespasian  was  emperor,  Titus,  who  afterward  suc- 
ceeded him,  destroyed  Jerusalem,  in  70  a.  d.  In 
the  time  of  Christ  the  Roman  Empire  consisted  of 
the  territory  about  the  Mediterranean  from  the 
Euphrates  to  the  Atlantic — a  distance  of  about  three 
thousand  miles.  North  and  south,  and  including 
Egypt,  it  extended  from  the  desert  to  the  Danube, 
and  up  into  the  British  Isles.  In  a  general  way  its 
area  and  its  population  may  be  likened  to  those  of 
the  United  States.  As  Greek  supremacy  hellenized 
the  East,  Roman  supremacy  latinized  the  West,  in 
which  the  Latin  translation  of  the  Bible,  the  Vulgate, 
became  what  the  Septuagint  had  been  in  the  East. 
78.  It  is  when  seen  against  the  background  of  the 
preceding  history  that  the  Jewish  sects  in  the  time 
of  Christ  can  most  easily  be  understood.  Though 
they  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  a  word,  in  pass- 
ing, concerning  the  Essenes.  In  some  respects  they 
were  fanatical  representatives  of  the  post-exilic  Puri- 
tans— the  "righteous,"  "pious,"  "poor  and  needy" 
who  "feared  Jehovah."  The  two  great  sects  in  the 
New  Testament,  the  Sadducees  and  Pharisees,  were 
representatives,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  of  two  oppos- 
ing tendencies  that  may  be  discerned  before  the 
exile.  After  the  exile  these  tendencies  may  be  seen 
with  increasing  clearness  as  the  Jews  were  succes- 
sively under  Persian,  Grecian,  Maccabean,  and 
Roman  rule.     The  one  tendency,  which  was  toward 


68  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

political,  social,  and  religious  alliances  with  other 
peoples,  and  was  in  the  Persian  period  represented 
by  the  "Nobles  of  Judah"  and  the  high-priest  Elia- 
shib,  and  in  the  Grecian  period  by  the  hellenizing 
and  aristocratic  priestly  parties,  in  the  Maccabean 
and  Roman  periods  was  represented  by  the  Saddu- 
cees.  The  other  tendency — toward  political,  social, 
and  religious  exclusiveness — represented  in  the  Per- 
sian period  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  and  in  the  Gre- 
cian period  by  the  Pious  (Hasideans),  in  the  later 
periods  was  represented  by  the  Pharisees,  whose  very 
name  means  "separatists."  It  should  be  carefully 
noted  that,  while  the  aristocratic  Sadducees  were, 
primarily,  politicians,  and  only  secondarily  religious, 
the  Pharisees  were  primarily  religious,  but  were 
sometimes  drawn  into  politics. 

79.  These  two  sects  also  represented  two  different 
institutions — the  Sadducees  the  temple,  and  the 
Pharisees  the  synagogue.  Whatever  the  history  of 
the  synagogue,  it  is  to  be  studied  in  connection  with 
the  experiences  of  the  Jews  in  captivity.  In  the 
synagogue  the  use  of  Scripture  was  what  the  sacri- 
fices and  ceremonies  were  in  the  temple.  What  the 
priest  was  to  the  temple  and  its  ministries,  the 
scribes  (professional  writers)  were  to  the  synagogue 
and  its  services.  While  the  Sadducees  were  the 
priestly  party  and  practically  controlled  the  high- 
priesthood,  Pharisaism,  though  not  synonymous  with 
scribism,  is  to  a  large  extent  to  be  identified  with  it. 


History  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians    69 

While  the  Sadducees,  though  few,  were  prominent 
in  the  Sanhedrin  (the  great  council  of  the  Jewish 
rulers),  the  six  thousand  or  more  Pharisees  were 
undoubtedly  the  popular  party.  Though,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Annas  and  Simeons,  the  people 
were  not  very  religious  themselves,  they  respected 
the  religious  Pharisees,  by  whom  they,  in  turn,  were 
treated  with  indifference  and  contempt. 


CHAPTER  VI 

LITERATURE   OF   HEBREWS,   JEWS,  AND   EARLY 
CHRISTIANS 

CHRONOLOGY 

80.  From  a  summary  of  the  history  of  Bible  times 
we  pass  to  a  consideration  of  the  writings  of  the 
Bible — first  with  special  reference  to  chronology, 
and  then  with  special  reference  to  literary  form. 
Probably  there  never  will  be  unanimity  among  schol- 
ars as  to  just  what  books  and  parts  of  books  were 
written  before  586  b.  c.  and  what  after  that  date.  All 
the  literature  of  the  northern  kingdom  was  written 
before  the  fall  of  Samaria  in  722  b.  c.  As  this  was 
before  the  period  of  great  literary  activity,  the 
northern  kingdom  did  not  leave  as  rich  a  legacy  of 
Scripture  as  came  from  Judah.  The  important  date 
in  the  literature  of  Judah,  after  the  fall  of  Samaria 
and  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  586  b.  c,  was 
the  date  of  the  giving  of  the  law,  621  b.  c.  Thus 
722  and  621,  a  century  later,  are  the  important  dates 
in  the  history  of  Hebrew  literature  before  586  B.  c. 

81.  The  two  Old  Testament  series  of  history  could 
not  have  been  completed  until  after  that  date,  be- 
cause in  each  of  them  the  history  is  continued  beyond 
it.  The  first  series,  consisting  of  the  first  seven  books 
together  with  I  and  II  Samuel  and  I  and  II  Kings, 

70 


^^      I         ^   V    I    jy 


s.              ^ 

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— -_ 

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^^ 

-jSj 

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^7 

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^; 

Literature  oj  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians  7 1 

continued  the  history  from  the  creation  to  the  middle 
of  the  captivity  in  Babylon.  The  other  (Chronicles, 
Ezra,  and  Nehemiah)  freely  used  the  material  of 
the  first.  Beginning  with  Adam,  it  continued  to  the 
middle  of  the  Persian  period.  The  historical  situa- 
tion preceding  the  fall  of  Israel,  described  in  these 
Old  Testament  histories,  is  reflected  in  the  prophe- 
cies of  Amos  and  Hosea.  These,  as  distinguished 
from  the  preceding  prophets  and  seers  (Elijah, 
Elisha,  and  others),  are  numbered  among  the  first  of 
the  "writing  prophets."  The  historical  situation  of 
Judah  between  Israel's  fall  and  her  own,  also  de- 
scribed in  these  Old  Testament  histories,  is  reflected 
in  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  Micah,  and  Jeremiah. 
Jeremiah  was  living  at  the  time  Jerusalem  was  de- 
stroyed. Ezekiel  prophesied  both  before  and  after 
that   event. 

82.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  more  or  less  of 
the  written  or  unwritten  material  incorporated  into 
the  later  literature  goes  back  before  the  captivity. 
On  the  other  hand,  much  of  that  written  before  the 
captivity  was  affected  by  compilers  and  editors  after 
586  B.  c.  It  is  now  generally  recognized  that  a  con- 
siderably larger  portion  of  the  Old  Testament  was 
written  after  that  date  than  was  formerly  supposed. 
Whole  books,  like  Ecclesiastes,  which  was  once  com- 
monly supposed  to  be  written  by  Solomon,  are  now 
placed  after  that  date.  So  with  large  parts  of  books 
once  thought  to  be  altogether  before  the  exile.     For 


72  Chrislianily  and  Its  Bible 

instance,  according  to  many  modern  scholars,  not 
only  the  second  part  of  Isaiah,  chaps.  40-66,  but 
(■1ki])s.  24-27  of  the  first  part,  do  not  belong  before 
I  lie  exile.  Similarly  it  is  held  that  the  Pentateuch 
(or,  including  Joshua,  the  llexateuch)  was  not 
simply  edited,  but  a  large  part  of  its  priestly  narra- 
tive was  written,  after  586  b.  c. 

83.  In  the  division  of  the  Old  Testament  into  the 
r^aw,  the  Pr()i)hets,  and  the  Writings  (or  Holy  Writ- 
ings) there  seems  to  have  been  no  (juestion  in  New 
Testament  times  but  that  the  Pentateuch  "was  given 
by  Moses. "  Among  most  s])ecialists  loday,  however, 
the  (juestion  is  not.  Are  "the  five  books  of  Moses"  a 
mosaic  in  the  sense  of  being  a  compilation  ?  but 
rather,  To  what  extent  are  they  a  Mosaic  mosaic? 
Another  (puslion  is,  not,  Did  David  write  even  the 
psalms  atlribult'd  to  him  in  their  somewhat  old 
titles  ?  but  rather.  Did  he  write  enough  of  the  psalms 
to  warrant  the  reference  to  the  whole  Psalter  as  the 
"psalms  of  David."  Still  another  cjuestion  is,  not. 
Did  Solomon  write  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  the 
Song  of  Songs  ?  but  rather,  What  |)art,  if  any,  in 
each  of  these  books,  may  reasonably  be  said  to  have 
come  from  him  ?  In  view  of  this,  some  wlio  are  not 
specialists  refer  to  these  books  themselves  rather 
than  attempt  to  mention  their  authors  by  name. 

84.  Among  specialists  there  is  a  growing  agree- 
ment that  in  making  the  first  six  books  of  the  Bible 
four  main  doc  uments  have  been  put  together.     They 


Literature  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians  73 

are  called  J  (from  its  preference  for  the  word  "  Jah- 
weh"  or  "Jehovah,"  in  the  Authorized  Version 
translated  "Lord"),  E  (from  its  preference  for  the 
word  "Elohim,"  translated  "God"),  D  (Deuter- 
onomic),  and  P  (Priestly).  As  J  and  E  do  not  differ 
from  each  other  as  much  as  from  the  others,  many 
who  are  not  specialists  may  profitably  consider  the 
four  documents  as  three.  To  JE,  the  earliest,  be- 
long the  Decalogue — i.  e.,  the  law  of  Ten  Words 
(rather  than  Commandments)  (Ex.  20:2-17);  and 
the  Covenant  Code  (Ex.  20:20 — 23:33).  To  D, 
considerably  later,  but  at  least  as  early  as  the  reign 
of  Josiah  (II  Kings,  chaps.  23),  and  so  before  the 
exile,  belongs  the  Deuteronomic  Code,  which  is  an 
enlarged  and  adapted  edition  of  the  Covenant  Code. 
In  P,  considerably  later  than  586  b.  c,  ceremonial 
law  is  so  prominent  that  the  name  " Priests'  Code"  is 
sometimes  given  to  the  whole  document.  Imbedded 
in  P,  and  to  some  extent  adapted  to  it,  is  a  somewhat 
earlier  code,  called  the  "Law  of  Holiness"  (Lev., 
chaps.  17-26).  Marked  resemblances  in  subject 
and  style  exist  between  this  and  the  prophecy  of 
Ezekiel.  While  the  priests  made  much  of  the  cere- 
monial law,  the  prophets  put  the  emphasis  upon  the 
moral  law.  This  distinction  should  be  kept  in  mind 
in  the  understanding  of  the  attitude  of  Jesus,  Paul, 
and  others  toward  the  Old  Testament  law. 

85.  What  the  Chaldean  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
in  586  B.  c.  is  to  the  dating  of  the  Old  Testament 


74  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

writings,  the  Roman  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  70 
A.  D.  is  to  the  dating  of  the  New  Testament  writings. 
Their  relation  to  that  destruction  is  one  of  the  impor- 
tant elements  in  the  problem  of  dating  them.  We 
know  that  whatever  letters  were  written  by  Paul  were 
written  before  70  A.  d.  ;  for  before  that  date  the 
time  of  his  departure  had  come.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  New  Testament 
writings  that  have  come  to  us  from  before  his  death 
are  the  works  of  Paul,  who  was  not  an  eyewitness  to 
the  ministry  of  Jesus.  Doubts  have  been  raised  con- 
cerning his  authorship  of  some  of  the  epistles  often 
attributed  to  him — notably  of  the  Pastoral  Epistles, 
I  and  II  Timothy,  and  Titus.  On  the  other  hand, 
his  authorship  of  Romans,  I  and  II  Corinthians, 
Galatians,  Philippians,  and  I  Thessalonians  is  almost 
universally  recognized.  Of  these  six,  I  Thessalo- 
nians is  the  earliest  and  Philippians  the  latest. 
There  is  strong  evidence  in  favor  of  the  Pauline 
authorship  of  other  epistles,  notably  of  Ephesians, 
Colossians,  II  Thessalonians,  and  Philemon.  It  is 
now  generally  agreed  that  Paul  did  not  write  He- 
brews. One  of  the  conjectures  concerning  its  author- 
ship is  that  the  author  was  a  woman. 

86.  While  Mark,  the  earliest  and  shortest  of  the 
gospels,  dates  from  before  70  a,  d.,  John,  the  latest, 
was  written  considerably  after  that  date.  More  than 
in  former  times  it  is  recognized  that  the  first  three 
gospels  differ  from  the  Fourth,  not  only  in  having 


Literature  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians  75 

been  written  considerably  earlier,  but  also  in  sayings, 
events,  chronology,  atmosphere,  purpose,  etc.  This 
difference  is  such  that  the  three,  as  distinguished 
from  the  Fourth,  are  commonly  called  the  Synop- 
tists — from  the  two  Greek  words  "together"  and 
"view."  While  these  three  differ  among  them- 
selves in  a  number  of  respects,  they  have  very  much 
in  common.  The  recognition  and  explanation  of 
their  resemblances  and  differences  constitute  what 
is  called  the  "  synoptic  problem. "  There  is  a  grad- 
ual development  in  their  presentation  of  Jesus  that 
is  not  to  be  found  in  the  Fourth  Gospel.  As  dis- 
tinguished from  its  type  of  doctrine,  they  give 
another;  the  writings  of  Paul  give  another;  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  another;  etc.  In  New  Tes- 
tament study  it  is  important  to  distinguish  between 
these  types. 

87.  In  passing  from  the  Old  Testament  to  the 
New  Testament  we  are  impressed  that  we  are  making 
a  great  change.  There  is  a  difference  in  the  spirit- 
ual atmosphere  and  life.  There  is  also  a  marked 
difference  in  institutions  and  religious  parties.  The 
synagogue,  for  instance,  comes  suddenly  into  promi- 
nence, while  the  Sadducees  and  Pharisees,  not  even 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  figure  very  promi- 
nently in  the  New  Testament.  While  we  do  not 
believe  that  the  Old  Testament,  which  was  the  Bible 
Jesus  used,  should  be  looked  upon  as  a  "millstone" 
for  the  neck  of  the  religion  Jesus  founded,  we  must 


y6  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

recognize  that  there  is  a  marked  difference  between 
it  and  the  New  Testament  that  Jesus  caused.  What 
is  the  explanation  ?  The  chief  reason  for  the  differ- 
ence is  the  personal  one  that  Jesus  is  present  in  the 
New  Testament  in  a  way  that  he  is  not  present  in 
the  Old  Testament.  A  very  important  reason,  how- 
ever, is  the  temporal  one  that  several  centuries 
intervened.  A  knowledge  of  the  history  and  litera- 
ture of  these  centuries  is  essential  to  a  right  under- 
standing of  the  views  of  the  Jews  when  Jesus  came. 
88,  For  ages  this  non-biblical  literature  of  Juda- 
ism did  not  receive  the  attention  it  deserved.  It  is 
an  important  part  of  the  Hinterland  of  the  New 
Testament.  It  is  the  smithy  in  which  may  be  forged 
many  links  otherwise  missing  between  the  teachings 
of  the  two  Testaments.  It  was  the  soil  in  which 
were  germinated  the  views  that  through  the  Jewish 
Christians  took  deep  root  in  the  beliefs  of  the  early 
church.  What  is  this  literature?  Going  back  as 
far  as  the  period  of  Greek  rule  in  Palestine,  and  in 
the  time  of  their  origin  following  and  even  over- 
lapping the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament  itself,  we 
mention  first  among  the  non-biblical  writings  of  Ju- 
daism the  Old  Testament  Apocrypha.  This  apoc- 
rypha includes  among  its  writings  Ecclesiasticus  and 
I  and  II  Maccabees.  It  is  about  one-fourth  the  size 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  so  nearly  three-fourths 
that  of  the  New  Testament.  It  represents,  though 
not   exactly,  the  writings  in  the  Greek  Septuagint 


Literature  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians  77 

that  were  not  found  in  the  Hebrew  Old  Testament. 
Overlapping  and  following  the  Apocrypha  are  writ- 
ings called  "apocalyptic" — i.  e.,  "unveiling"  or 
"revealing" — and  " pseudepigraphic" — i.  e.,  "false- 
named,  "  because  attributed  to  those  who  did  not 
write  them.  They  include  the  Book  of  Enoch,  the 
Psalms  of  Solomon,  and  the  Book  of  Jubilees.  Im- 
portant, too,  among  Jewish  writings  are  the  writings 
of  the  Alexandrian  Jew  Philo,  in  whose  lifetime  Jesus 
was  born  and  died.  Though  not  born  until  after  the 
death  of  Jesus,  Josephus  too  lived  in  New  Testament 
times. 

89.  The  non-biblical  literature,  especially  in  its 
later  writings,  represented  the  Pharisees  more  than 
the  Sadducees.  Since  it  was  out  of  the  Pharisaic, 
rather  than  Sadducean,  Judaism  that  Christianity 
arose,  the  fact  that  the  non-biblical  literature  was 
largely  Pharisaic  is  one  of  the  reasons  for  the  impor- 
tance of  its  study  in  learning  the  views  of  the  Jews 
when  Jesus  came. 

LITERARY  FORMS 

90.  It  should  be  remembered,  not  only  that  the 
Bible  was  written  by  different  authors  and  in  different 
ages,  but  also  that  it  was  written  in  different  liter- 
ary forms.  An  understanding  of  these  different 
forms  helps  to  a  truer  appreciation  of  the  thought. 
It  contains  five  books  of  poetry.  None  of  these  is 
in  the  New   Testament.     New   Testament   poetry 


•jS  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

consists  largely  of  quotations  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  five  books,  together  with  pieces  of 
poetry  (some  of  it  not  remarkably  religious)  found 
in  other  books,  make  about  one-seventh  of  the  whole 
Bible.  This  does  not  take  into  account  the  poetic 
lines  into  which  the  highest  prose  easily  passes  be- 
cause of  the  nature  of  Hebrew  poetry. 

91.  It  differs  much  from  English  verse.  While 
"the  dominant  principle  of  the  Hebrew  line  is  accent 
or  tone,"  its  rhythm  is  that  of  thought  as  well  as  of 
accent.  This  it  is  that  makes  it  so  translatable  into 
other  languages.  Its  underlying  and  most  common 
form  is  the  couplet  in  which  the  second  line  repeats, 
completes,  or  is  in  contrast  with,  the  thought  of  the 
first.  These  lines  may  have  only  approximately  the 
same  number  of  syllables.  Quite  frequently  to  make 
this  parallelism  of  thought,  which  is  such  a  prominent 
characteristic  of  Hebrew  poetry,  requires  three  or 
four  lines.  Each  one  of  these  may  be  parallel  to 
one  or  more  of  the  others.  These  parallel  thoughts 
seem  at  times  to  be  grouped  into  stanzas  or  strophes, 
as  they  are  commonly  called.  The  recognition  of 
this  parallelism  is  necessary  for  a  true  appreciation 
of  the  Bible  as  literature,  and  for  a  true  interpreta- 
tion of  much  of  its  meaning.  Compare,  for  example, 
the  Authorized  Version  and  the  Revised  Version 
of  Ps.  19:3. 

92.  The  Old  Testament  had  no  Milton  to  narrate, 
concerning  others,  an  epic  like  Paradise  Lost,  and 


Literature  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians  79 

no  Shakespeare  to  portray,  in  drama,  the  character 
of  others.  Much  of  its  poetry  was  lyric — i.  e.,  it  was 
such  as  might  be  sung  to  the  accompaniment  of  the 
lyre  or  other  instrument.  In  connection  with  the 
psalms  of  the  Psaltery  we  think  of  the  psaltery  of 
which  they  sang.  We  like  to  think  of  Jesus  and  his 
disciples  singing  them  together  (Matt.  26:30).  Dr. 
S.  R.  Driver  writes: 

Of  the  two  forms  of  poetry  in  which  the  greatest  master- 
pieces of  the  Aryan  races  have  been  cast,  the  epos  and  the 
drama,  the  former  is  entirely  unrepresented  in  Hebrew  Utera- 
ture,  the  latter  is  represented  only  in  a  rudimentary  and 
imperfect  form  ....  the  Song  of  Songs  is  of  the  nature  of  a 
drama;  and  the  Book  of  Job  may  be  styled  a  dramatic  poem. 
But  the  genius  of  the  ancient  Israelite  was  pre-eminently 
subjective;  ....  it  was  his  own  thoughts  and  emotions  for 
which  he  sought  spontaneously  to  find  forms  of  expression. 
Hence  Hebrew  poetry  is  almost  exclusively  lyric  or  gnomic. 

To  the  latter  of  these  belongs  the  Book  of  Proverbs. 
Lamentations,  as  its  name  suggests,  is  elegiac.  This 
differs  from  the  rest  in  having  longer  lines,  which 
are  broken  usually  into  a  longer  and  a  shorter 
part.  Lamentations  itself  is  an  elegy  on  the  evil 
results  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  586  b.  c. 
93.  Two  of  the  poetic  books.  Job  and  Proverbs, 
are  classed  with  Ecclesiastes  as  "Wisdom"  litera- 
ture. In  Jer.  18:18  we  read  of  the  "law  of  the 
priest,"  the  "word"  of  the  "prophet,"  and  the 
"counsel"  of  the  "wise."  Because  of  their  broader 
culture,  these  "wise"  are  sometimes  called  the  "Hu- 


8o  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

manists"  of  the  Old  Testament.  From  them  has 
come  the  so-called  "Wisdom  literature."  This,  with 
the  prologue  of  John  and  a  few  other  passages, 
may  be  called  the  philosophy  of  the  Bible.  In  the 
practical  philosophy  of  Proverbs  wisdom  is  personi- 
fied. In  Job  the  problem  wrestled  with  is  the 
mystery  of  the  affliction  that  comes  upon  the  godly. 
In  Ecclesiastes  there  seems  at  times  a  skeptical  atti- 
tude— for  instance,  concerning  Providence — and,  as 
a  result,  a  rather  low  ideal  of  life. 

94.  In  interpreting  prophecy,  which  at  times  is 
really  poetry,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  em- 
phasis should  be  put  upon  its  forth-telling  rather  than 
upon  its  foretelling.  The  true  prophet,  as  a  prophet, 
appears  sometimes  as  one  telling  events  before  they 
come  to  pass,  but  always  as  one  speaking  for  God. 
The  prophets  were  preachers.  What  preaching! 
What  boldness!  What  beauty!  What  grandeur! 
What  vision!  What  poetry!  What  power!  In 
the  Jewish  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  much  of  its 
historical  writings  is  classed  as  the  "Former  Proph- 
ets." In  interpreting  the  history  as  well  as  the 
prophecy  of  the  Bible,  therefore,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  much  of  it  is  sermonic.  As  consisting  of 
historical  sermons,  the  emphasis  is  to  be  put  upon 
the  truth  intended  to  be  taught,  rather  than  upon 
the  question  of  the  accuracy  of  what  is  given  as  his- 
torical illustration  of  the  truth. 

95.  To  illustrate  thought  by  what  may  not  be 


Literature  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians    8i 

accepted  as  a  fact  does  not  make  the  thought  untrue. 
On  the  contrary,  it  may  be  one  of  the  greatest  truths. 
The  thought  that  a  preacher  illustrates  by  a  story 
concerning  William  Tell  or  Abraham  Lincoln  may 
be  a  great  truth,  though  the  story  be  uncorroborated 
or  even  contrary  to  the  facts.  Referring  particu- 
larly to  the  New  Testament  writers'  use  of  the  Old 
Testament  in  corroboration  of  the  resurrection  of 
Jesus  and  of  the  virgin-birth.  Dr.  A.  B.  Davidson 
wrote:  "The  things  they  assert  we  take  on  their 
authority,  but  the  kind  of  confirmation  by  which 
they  support  them,  however  valid  they  may  have 
seemed  as  evidence  then,  may  not  seem  of  such 
importance  now."  Asserting  authoritatively  is  not 
necessarily  asserting  infallibly.  A  great  physician, 
for  instance,  may  speak  with  great  authority  in  his 
special  department  of  medicine,  and  yet  not  be  con- 
sidered infallible  in  it.  Keeping  this  in  mind,  Dr. 
Davidson's  sentence  is  very  suggestive  for  the  right 
interpretation  of  all  the  writers  of  the  Bible. 

96.  Old  Testament  history  comes  to  us  in  compi- 
lations. Much  of  the  work  of  higher  criticism  is 
based  upon  the  belief  that  through  their  differences 
in  aim,  treatment,  and  literary  style  the  different 
documents,  with  more  or  less  definiteness  and  confi- 
dence, can  be  separated  from  one  another  and  from 
the  work  of  the  compilers  themselves.  There  is 
danger  here  of  unwarranted  definiteness  and  confi- 
dence.   Nevertheless,  to  get  at  the  facts  in  and  back 


82  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

of  the  author's  thought,  it  is  not  enough  that  the 
two  series  of  Old  Testament  history  be  distinguished 
from  each  other.  As  far  as  possible,  the  different 
documents  of  which  each  is  composed  should  be 
distinguished  and  viewed  in  the  light  of  their  differ- 
ent times.  The  difference  between  the  two  series 
will  be  illustrated  later  when  we  consider  their  dif- 
ference with  respect  to  beliefs  concerning  Satan. 
The  difference  between  the  documents  of  the  earlier 
series  will  be  illustrated  as  we  notice  their  different 
treatment  of  the  tabernacle.  We  have  already  no- 
ticed that  imbedded  more  or  less  in  these  different 
documents  are  the  different  codes  of  law.  As  the 
important  legal  literature  of  the  Bible,  these  codes 
are  to  be  viewed  in  the  light  of  their  different  times. 
97.  Most  of  the  New  Testament  consists  of  gos- 
pels and  epistles.  The  four  gospels  are  biographies 
of  Jesus  in  somewhat  the  same  way  that  many  of  the 
Old  Testament  narratives  are  histories.  They  are 
homiletical  biographies,  or  biographical  sermons, 
and  are  to  be  interpreted  accordingly.  The  use  of 
material  was  determined  largely  by  the  purpose  of 
the  writers.  These  differed  somewhat.  In  the 
Fourth  Gospel  the  declared  purpose  was  to  influence 
the  readers  to  believe  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  the 
Son  of  God;  and  believing  they  might  have  life  in 
his  name  (John  20:31).  Of  the  twenty-seven  New 
Testament  writings,  the  twenty-one  epistles,  includ- 


Literature  of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  Early  Christians  83 

ing  even  Romans,  are  to  be  treated,  not  simply  as 
theological  treatises,  but  rather  as  religious  letters 
in  which  there  is  more  or  less  of  the  personal  element. 
98.  The  one  class  of  literature  that  is  dependent 
upon  a  knowledge  of  its  times  for  even  an  approxi- 
mately correct  interpretation  is  the  apocalyptic.  In 
the  Bible  it  is  found  chiefly  in  Daniel  and  Revela- 
tion. To  be  understood  at  all  it  must  be  seen  in  the 
light  of  its  times.  Without  this  it  is  either  absurd  or 
occasions  absurdity  of  views  concerning  the  future. 
The  large  amount  of  it  in  the  uncanonical  literature 
of  Bible  times  helps  us  to  the  right  way  to  interpret 
the  little  that  is  found  in  the  Bible.  It  must  be 
treated  as  describing  in  a  large  symbolic  way  its 
troubled  times.  Naturally  enough,  the  rulers, 
causes,  circumstances,  and  hoped-for  end  of  these 
could  not  be  represented  very  explicitly.  Its  design 
was  to  give  immediate  help  to  a  troubled  present, 
rather  than  to  predict  what  was  to  come  in  succeeding 
ages  down  to  the  present  time.  Rev.  1:1,  19;  4:1; 
22:7,  10,  for  instance,  point  to  the  immediate  future. 
If  there  is  one  class  of  literature  in  the  Bible  that 
especially  needs  the  exercise  of  common-sense  by 
the  ordinary  reader,  it  is  this.  There  is  meaning, 
for  instance,  in  the  numbers  of  apocalyptic  litera- 
ture. The  use  of  3,  7,  10,  12,  40,  for  example,  is 
significant.  The  trouble  is  that  in  the  symbolism  of 
numbers,  as  in  the  treatment  of  types,  it  seems  very 


84  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

easy  for  many  minds  to  go  to  absurd  extremes. 
Two  things,  then,  are  indispensable  to  an  intelligent 
reading  of  apocalyptic  writings — knowledge  of  their 
times  and  a  good  degree  of  common-sense.  Even 
so-called  spiritually  minded  insight  cannot  dispense 
with  these. 


CHAPTER  VII 
ARTS,  SCIENCE,  AND  PHILOSOPHY 
ARTS 
99.  We  have  now  a  historical  and  literary  back- 
ground against  which  to  see  the  arts,  science,  philoso- 
phy, religious  beliefs,  and  messianic  hopes  of  Bible 
times.  In  this  chapter  we  consider  first  the  arts. 
The  sister-arts  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and  paint- 
ing may  well  be  considered  together.  Thousands 
of  years  before  Christ  the  temples,  tombs,  and  royal 
palaces  of  Egypt  and  Assyria  were  carved  and  colored 
to  enhance  their  effect.  While  the  principle  of  the 
arch  was  known,  it  was  not  used  to  roof  great  dis- 
tances, as  in  modem  times.  The  nature  of  the  archi- 
tecture was  affected  by  the  building  material  at 
hand.  Mud-brick  buildings  were  common  in  Bible 
times.  Egypt,  more  favorably  situated  for  building- 
stone  than  Assyria,  has  left  us  the  pyramids  and  the 
Sphinx.  Though  Assyria  built  largely  with  mud- 
bricks,  yet  the  capitals  of  her  monuments  are  said  to 
foreshadow  the  most  graceful  style  of  the  Greeks; 
and  Assyriologists  are  impressed  with  the  eminence 
she  attained  in  the  bas-relief  that  adorned  the  walls 
of  her  palaces.  "The  cause  of  Phoenician  suprem- 
acy in  stone-work  is  probably  from  their  occupying 
a  rocky  coast,  where  brick  is  less  attainable,  and  a 
wet  coast,  where  stone  is  more  needed. " 

85 


86  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

loo.  Phoenicians  were  engaged  in  the  building  of 
Solomon's  temple.  In  this  they  used  the  limestone 
of  the  city  itself,  the  cedars  and  cypresses  of  Lebanon, 
and  their  own  metal-work.  Elaborate  decorations 
added  to  its  splendor.  Concerning  the  second 
temple  (commonly  called  Zerrubbabel's),  built  after 
the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  captivity,  our  infor- 
mation is  very  limited.  The  temple  of  Herod  (com- 
monly called  the  third,  but  by  many  viewed  as  the 
second  enlarged  and  improved),  with  its  marble  and 
gold,  was  one  of  great  splendor.  Inclosed  on  its 
four  sides  by  a  high  wall  was  first  the  outer  court, 
into  which  gentiles  were  allowed  to  enter.  On 
higher  ground  inside  this  was  another  court,  sur- 
rounded by  a  high  wall,  outside  of  which  was  a  low 
wall.  On  this  low  wall  was  inscribed  a  threat  of 
death  to  gentiles  if  they  passed  within.  This  rec- 
tangular inner  court  had,  as  its  first  section,  a  wom- 
en's court,  beyond  which  only  the  men  were  allowed 
to  go.  Inside  the  other  section  the  men's  court 
surrounded  the  priests'  court,  inside  which,  and 
on  the  highest  ground  of  all,  and  inclosed  with 
chambers  and  a  porch,  was  the  sacred  house  itself. 
Within  this  was  the  Holy  Place,  from  which  the 
Most  Holy  Place,  as  the  heart  of  all,  was  curtained 
off  by  means  of  the  "veil." 

loi.  The  dimensions  of  the  temple  are  given  in 
cubits.  The  cubit  has  been  variously  estimated  from 
less  than  a  foot  and  a  half  to  over  two  feet.     The 


Arts,  Science,  and  Philosophy  87 

inside  of  the  house  was  twenty  cubits  wide  and  sixty 
long — forty  for  the  Holy  Place  and  twenty  for  the 
Most  Holy,  which  was  thus  as  wide  as  it  was  long. 
The  walls,  chambers,  and  imposing  porch  made  the 
outside  of  the  house  very  much  larger.  The  great 
porch,  as  high  as  the  house  and  its  inclosing  cham- 
bers, and  thirty  cubits  broader,  was  one  hundred 
cubits  square.  Speaking  in  a  general  way,  the  walls 
inclosing  the  whole  temple  area  were  altogether 
about  half  a  mile  in  length.  Just  inside  these  walls 
of  the  outer  court  were  splendid  porticoes,  with 
white-marble  columns  and  carved- cedar  roofs. 
Among  these  was  the  so-called  Solomon's  Porch. 
Inside  the  priests'  court,  in  front  of  the  house  itself, 
was  the  altar  for  burnt-ofifering.  In  the  middle  of 
the  Holy  Place  was  the  altar  of  incense,  on  the  right 
of  the  table  of  shew  bread  and  on  the  left  the  seven- 
armed  lampstand.  Unlike  Solomon's  temple,  but 
like  Zerrubbabel's,  Herod's  had  no  ark  and  cherubim 
in  its  Most  Holy  Place.  While  the  Holy  Place  was 
entered  daily  by  the  priests,  the  Most  Holy  was 
entered  only  by  the  high-priest,  and  that  but  once  a 
year — on  the  Day  of  Atonement. 

102.  What  was  the  relation  of  the  temple  to  the 
tabernacle  and  to  the  synagogue  ?  The  behef  of 
many  bibhcal  scholars  is  that  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament references  written  before  586  b.  c.  we  have  a 
simple  "tent  of  meeting"  as  the  dwelling-place  of  the 
ark,  which  was  looked  upon  as  the  dwelling-place 


88  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

of  Jehovah.  In  those  written  after  that  date  we  have 
this  tent  idealized  according  to  the  pattern  of  the 
temple  of  Solomon.  While  the  synagogue  would 
have  some  resemblance  to  the  temple  (the  place  of 
the  Scripture  answering  to  the  Most  Holy  Place,  and 
the  different  places  for  men,  women,  and  strangers 
answering  to  the  different  courts  of  the  temple  area), 
the  buildings  naturally  would  reflect  the  styles  of  the 
ages  in  which  they  were  built. 

103.  It  was  in  Greece  over  a  century  after  586  b.  c. 
that  art  reached  its  greatest  pre-Christian  excellence. 
It  was  the  age  in  which  tragedy  by  Aeschylus,  Sopho- 
cles, and  Euripides,  and  comedy  by  Aristophanes, 
attained  great  excellence.  It  was  the  age  when 
Athens  was  governed  by  Pericles,  the  brilliant  patron 
of  literature  and  art.  In  that  age  the  Acropolis,  or 
eminence  upon  which  the  city  was  built,  was  crowned 
with  magnificent  buildings.  Among  them  was  the 
marble  temple  of  Minerva,  called  the  Parthenon.  It 
arose  under  the  superintendency  of  Phidias,  the 
greatest  of  the  Greek  sculptors.  Of  the  styles  of 
Greek  architecture  the  simplest  was  the  solid  Doric, 
the  column  of  which  had  as  its  capital  a  plain  slab ; 
the  most  graceful  was  the  slender  Ionic,  the  column 
of  which  had  two  spirals  in  its  capital ;  and  the  most 
ornate  was  the  Corinthian,  with  plantlike  capitals. 
The  greatest  pre-Christian  painter  was  Apelles, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  through 
whom  Palestine  passed  under  Greek  control.     It  was 


Arts,  Science,  and  Philosophy  89 

before  the  time  of  Apelles  and  among  the  Greeks  that 
painting  ceased  to  be  simply  the  handmaiden  of 
architecture. 

104.  In  the  matter  of  sacred  music  it  is  almost 
impossible  for  the  modern  mind  to  put  itself  back 
into  Bible  times.  The  change  would  be  so  great. 
While  the  three  divisions  of  musical  instruments 
were  then  represented  (the  stringed  by  the  harp  and 
psaltery,  the  wind  by  the  flute,  and  the  instruments 
of  percussion  by  the  tabret  or  hand-drum),  the  in- 
strumental music  itself  was  very  crude.  The  skilful 
combining  of  notes  played  at  the  same  time  to  pro- 
duce harmony,  as  it  is  viewed  today,  was  then  un- 
known. Even  melody,  with  its  pleasing  succession 
of  single  notes,  was  but  little  understood.  Of  all  the 
fine  arts  music  was  the  latest  in  its  development. 
It  did  not  come  of  age  until  modern  times. 

SCIENCE 

105.  The  very  beginning  of  the  Bible — an  account 
of  creation — was  written  after  586  b.  c.  Imme- 
diately following  this  account  is  another  account  of 
creation,  probably  coming  from  before  586  b.  c. 
They  meet  in  the  middle  of  Gen.  2:4.  Similarly  the 
flood  has  its  different  accounts.  In  the  accounts  of 
the  creation  and  of  the  flood  we  have  but  two  of  a 
number  of  instances  of  parallel  accounts.  Some  of 
these  differ  from  each  other  so  much  in  matter, 
method,  conception,  language,  etc.,  that  they  must 


go  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

be  the  work  of  different  authors  and  of  considerably 
different  times.  The  account  of  creation  written 
after  586  b.  c.  differs  very  considerably  from  the  one 
written  before  that  date.  It  differs  still  more,  how- 
ever, from  what  modern  science  has  to  tell  us  of  the 
heavens  and  the  earth.  Its  conceptions  of  these  were 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  Babylonians. 

106.  Geology  had  not  read  on  its  strata-pages 
the  wonderful  story  of  the  long  history  of  the  earth. 
Astronomy  had  not  learned  of  the  great  universe  in 
which  the  earth  is  but  a  planet  revolving  around  the 
great  sun  which  is  but  one  of  the  many  stars.  In 
Bible  times  the  earth  was  viewed  as  not  round  but 
flat,  and  as  resting  upon  "the  waters"  of  the  "great 
deep."  Somewhere  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth 
was  Sheol  (Hades,  Abaddon),  viewed  as  the  place  of 
all  who  died.  Above  the  earth  was  the  "  firmament," 
"called  heaven,"  with  its  sun  and  moon  and  stars. 
Of  these,  though  the  sun  and  moon  were  "two 
great  lights"  as  compared  with  the  stars,  they  were 
small  as  compared  to  the  earth  itself.  Above  the 
firmament  also  were  "  the  waters."  In  the  firmament 
were  the  "windows  of  heaven."  The  flood  was  due 
to  the  opening  of  these  "windows"  and  to  the  break- 
ing-up  of  the  "fountains  of  the  great  deep." 

PHILOSOPHY 

107.  Science  seeks  to  learn  and  classify  the  facts. 
Philosophy  seeks  to  get  beneath  these  in  order  to  get 


Aris,  Science,  and  Philosophy  91 

their  meaning.  It  has  been  called  the  "science  of 
principles."  It  aims  to  get,  beneath  the  islands  of 
fact,  the  underlying,  unifying  meaning  of  them  all. 

Philosophy  aims  to  co-ordinate  the  interpreted  resuUs  of 
all  science  in  a  form  suited  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  intel- 
lect for  a  reasonable  account  of  the  universe.  Theology  aims 
at  a  synthesis  of  the  same  elements  which  shall  meet  the  needs 
of  man  as  a  moral  and  religious  being  endowed  with  feeling 
and  will. 

When  man's  inquiring  into  nature  was  not  simply 
for  the  gratification  of  his  immediate  wants,  but 
rather  for  the  satisfying  of  a  more  intellectual  demand 
for  the  reason  of  things,  philosophy  was  born.  Her 
chief  abode  was  among  the  Greeks.  The  history  of 
Greek  philosophy  may  be  conveniently  divided  into 
three  periods.  The  middle  one  would  be  the  cen- 
tury of  the  great  three — Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aris- 
totle who  died  in  322  B.  c.  Of  these  Plato  was  the 
pupil  of  Socrates  and  the  teacher  of  Aristotle. 

108.  The  first  of  these  periods  sought  an  abiding 
principle  for  the  explanation  of  the  changing  forms 
of  nature.  The  first  efforts  were  unscientific,  judged 
by  the  science  of  today.  Thales  who  lived  at  the 
time  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  586  b.  c, 
and  with  whom  Greek  philosophy  may  be  said  to 
have  begun,  held  that  "from  water  everything  arises, 
into  water  everything  returns."  Decades  later 
Pythagoras  claimed  that  number  was  the  essence  of 
all  things.     He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who 


g2  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

took  for  the  term  "wise"  the  title  "philosopher," 
or  "lover  of  wisdom." 

109.  Socrates,  the  first  of  the  great  three  of  our 
second  period,  is  called  the  first  moral  philosopher 
because  of  his  endeavor  to  get  careful  definitions  for 
the  different  moral  terms.  An  interesting  compari- 
son might  be  made  between  the  different  representa- 
tions of  him  made  by  Plato  and  Xenophon,  and  the 
different  representations  of  Jesus  given  in  the  four 
gospels.  Platonism  was  influenced  by  the  teachings 
of  Socrates  and  by  elements  from  earlier  philosophy, 
including  that  of  Pythagoras.  Prominent  in  it  is 
Plato's  view  of  "ideas."  This,  in  brief,  was  that  all 
objects  come  from,  and  are  more  or  less  imperfect 
copies  of,  "ideas"  which  are  the  immaterial  patterns 
for  the  classes  to  which  the  objects  belong.  For 
instance,  actual  men  differ  only  as  imperfect  copies  of 
the  ideal  man  from  whom  they  came.  It  was  this 
teaching  that  prepared  the  way  for  the  logos  doc- 
trine of  Philo,  the  eminent  Alexandrian  contemporary 
of  Jesus.  This  doctrine  was  that  the  logos — i.  e., 
the  ideal  world  in  the  mind  of  God — originated  the 
actual  world.  Plato  himself  occasionally  used  the 
word  "logos"  as  "descriptive  of  the  divine  force 
from  which  the  world  has  arisen." 

no.  Though  influenced  by  Platonism,  Aristote- 
lianism  differed  from  it  considerably.  The  influence 
of  both  on  later  thought  has  been  great.  Coleridge 
wrote:    "Every  man  is  born  an  Aristotelian  or  a 


Arts,  Science,  and  Philosophy  93 

Platonist."  They  differ  in  their  methods.  The 
Aristotelian  method  is  inductive  (a  posteriori),  be- 
cause it  infers  general  conclusions  from  a  considera- 
tion of  particular  cases.  The  Platonic  is  deductive 
(a  priori),  because  it  applies  a  general  principle  to 
the  particular  case.  They  differ  also  in  their  theory 
of  knowledge — i.  e.,  in  their  epistemology.  The 
Aristotelians  are  experientialists  (empiricists,  asso- 
ciationists,  sensationists,  etc.),  because  they  hold  that 
all  knowledge  is  based  on,  and  must  be  tested  by, 
the  senses  and  experiences.  The  Platonists,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  intuitionalists,  because  they  hold  that 
man  has  immediate  knowledge  of  (i.  e.,  he  intuits) 
necessary  truths.  The  Aristotelians  are  realists,  as 
distinguished  from  idealists,  because  they  hold  that 
they  can  actually  perceive,  and  surely  know,  not 
merely  ideas,  but  what  seem  to  be,  and  are,  external 
objects.  However  idealists  may  differ  among  them- 
selves as  subjective,  objective,  absolute,  etc.,  idealism 
in  its  different  forms  is  to  be  traced  back  to  Plato's 
view  of  "ideas." 

III.  The  third  period  of  Greek  philosophy  began 
early  in  the  period  of  Greek  rule  in  Palestine.  It  was 
through  Stoicism  rather  than  through  the  opposite 
school  of  Epicureanism  that  the  logos  idea  is  to  be 
traced.  Epicureanism,  founded  by  Epicurus,  be- 
lieved in  seeking  individual  happiness  from  the 
objective  world.  Stoicism,  founded  by  Zeno  and 
represented  in  Christian  times  by  Seneca,  Epictetus, 


94  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

and  Marcus  Aurelius,  "seekers  after  God,"  believed 
that  the  essence  of  things  is  the  one  universal  logos, 
or  reason,  in  harmony  with  which  man  should  seek 
to  live.  That  there  is  a  connection  between  the 
Logos,  or  Word,  of  John  i :  i  and  the  logos  of  Greek 
philosophy  there  can  be  no  question.  The  question 
is  concerning  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  connection 
between  the  Word  of  John  i :  i  and  the  Platonic 
phraseology  and  thought  that  so  influenced  the 
Stoics  and  Philo. 

112.  Another  term  of  Greek  philosophy,  to  be 
taken  into  account  in  the  study  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  later  doctrines,  is  the  term  "pleroma" 
("fulness;"  Col.  1:19,  etc.).  The  philosophy  found 
in  the  Wisdom  literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  if  it 
may  be  called  philosophy,  is  practical  rather  than 
speculative.  An  interesting  question  is  concerning 
the  relation  between  this  and  the  later  Greek  philoso- 
phy. What,  for  instance,  is  to  be  said  concerning 
the  relation  between  the  skepticism  of  Ecclesiastes 
and  the  skepticism  of  the  Greek  philosophers  ?  The 
development  of  its  skepticism  was  one  of  the  ways 
Greek  philosophy  prepared  for  the  coming  of  Jesus. 
By  its  intellectual  processes  it  undermined  the  religion 
of  heathendom  and  prepared  forms  of  thought  for 
Christian  thinkers.  While  one  of  its  main  roads  led 
to  a  skepticism  concerning  the  certainty  of  knowledge, 
another  (Epicureanism)  led  to  a  moral  decay,  and 
its  best  (Stoicism)  led  to  but  an  insufficient  salvation. 


Arts,  Science,  and  Philosophy  95 

Thus,  both  negatively  and  positively,  it  made  ready 
for  Him  who  came  in  "the  fulness  of  the  time." 

113.  In  its  contact  with  the  speculative  and  skep- 
tical philosophy  of  the  Greeks  Christianity  could 
pray:  "This  is  life  eternal  that  they  should  know 
Thee,  the  only  true  God,  and  him  who  Thou  didst 
send,  even  Jesus  Christ."  With  it  the  great  dual- 
ism of  experience  was  not,  as  with  the  Greeks,  be- 
tween changing  forms  and  abiding  matter,  and 
between  reason  and  the  senses.  With  it  the  funda- 
mental dualism  was  that  between  the  will  of  God 
and  the  will  of  man.  It  taught,  as  the  principle 
underlying  all  other  principles,  the  willing  oneness 
of  God  and  man.  It  taught,  as  the  solution  of  the 
problem  of  experience,  the  reconciliation  between 
God  and  man— that  God  was  in  Christ  reconciling 
the  world  unto  himself.  Philosophy  as  a  school- 
master helped  to  prepare  the  Greek  world  for  this 
lesson. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  BELIEF  IN  BIBLE  TIMES 

MONOTHEISM  AND  INDIVIDUALISM 

114.  Against  the  background  of  the  history,  and 
with  a  chronological  use  of  the  literature,  we  are 
better  able  to  appreciate  the  fact  of  the  development 
of  belief  in  Bible  times.  We  will  notice  j5rst  the 
growth  of  monotheism  and  individualism,  then  of 
views  concerning  the  hereafter,  then  (as  a  continuation 
of  this)  of  beliefs  concerning  the  kingdom  of  God  and 
its  doctrine  of  the  millennium,  and  finally  of  the 
belief  in  Satan  and  his  hosts.  First,  then,  concern- 
ing growth  in  conceptions  of  Deity  and  the  place 
of  man.  While  the  Greek  preparation  for  Chris- 
tianity was  largely  philosophical,  the  Jewish  prepara- 
tion was  largely  theological.  There  were  many 
lessons  to  be  learned  concerning  the  nature  of  Deity 
and  the  consequent  relationship  with  man.  It  took 
centuries  of  schooling.  The  beginning  of  each  of 
the  lessons,  and  the  extent  to  which  at  any  particu- 
lar time  it  had  been  learned,  may  not  be  definitely 
determined.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  there  was 
a  great  development  in  belief.  It  is  hard,  for  in- 
stance, for  our  modern  minds  of  the  West  to  under- 
stand that  the  earlier  Old  Testament  religion,  in 
common  with  other  religions,  had  as  its  unit  before 

96 


Development  of  Belief  in  Bible  Times  97 

God,  not  the  individual  soul,  but  rather  the  com- 
munity or  the  people  as  a  whole.  God  was  primar- 
ily God  of  the  nation,  and  only  secondarily,  of  the 
individual  as  part  of  the  nation.  As  Chemosh  was 
the  god  of  Moab,  so  Jehovah  was  God  of  but  the 
Hebrew  people  and  its  land. 

115.  This  is  what  is  called  monolatry.  Like 
polytheism,  it  believes  in  more  than  one  God,  but, 
like  monotheism,  which  believes  in  only  one  God,  it 
worships  only  one.  Monotheism  in  theology  sug- 
gests monism  in  philosophy.  Monism  would  explain 
all  phenomena  by  one  ultimate  substance  or  prin- 
ciple of  being.  This  differs  in  different  monistic 
systems.  One  of  these,  pantheism,  says  all  is  God. 
When  and  how  did  the  Hebrew  worship  become 
monolatry,  and  when  and  how  did  it  change  from 
monolatry  to  monotheism  ?  The  changed  social  and 
economic  conditions  resulting  from  the  settlement 
in  Canaan,  the  centralization  of  national  govenr- 
ment  in  the  rise  of  the  monarchy,  and  the  effects  of 
the  captivity  were  among  the  influences  at  work. 
The  captivity  was  a  time  of  testing  the  strength  of 
their  attachment  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah.  Those 
who  stood  the  test  were  helped  to  a  higher  view  of 
their  God.  For  such,  instead  of  leading  to  the 
worship  of  the  gods  of  the  conquerors  of  Palestine, 
the  captivity  helped  to  the  belief  that  he  was  the 
one  God  of  the  whole  world,  including  Babylonia 
itself;  and  to  the  belief  that  the  exile  was  a  discipline 


g8  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

through  which  this  one  God  was  causing  the  Jew 
to  pass. 

1 1 6.  The  captivity  affected  them  in  two  ways. 
It  helped  to  give  them  a  telescope  and  a  microscope 
through  which  they  learned,  not  only  that  Jehovah's 
rule  was  more  extensive,  but  also  that  his  interest 
was  more  intensive  than  they  had  thought.  Though 
the  increase  of  his  greatness  would  tend  to  increase 
his  transcendence,  yet  the  breaking- up  of  the  national 
unit  increased  the  comparative  importance  of  the 
individual  unit  before  him.  This  growth  of  indi- 
vidualism is  one  of  the  most  interesting  studies  in 
the  Old  Testament.  That  the  solidarity  of  the 
family,  clan,  etc.,  overshadowed  the  worth  of  indi- 
viduality is  seen  especially  in  the  early  literature.  It 
is  shown  in  such  instances  as  the  destruction  of  the 
families  of  the  guilty  individuals  (Num.,  chap.  i6; 
Josh.,  chap.  7;  II  Sam.,  chap.  21;  etc.).  Back  of 
Ex.  20:5  is  the  thought  of  solidarity  rather  than  of 
heredity.  The  change  from  nomadic  to  agricul- 
tural, commercial,  and  town  life  helped  to  increase 
the  comparative  worth  of  individualism  which  had 
attained  to  clear,  definite  expression  in  the  time  of 
the  exile. 

THE  HEREAFTER 

117.  This  great  event,  in  helping  to  increase  the 
domain  of  Jehovah  and  his  interest  in  individuals, 
helped  to  a  different  view  of  the  hereafter.  It  helped 
to  the  belief  that  his  presence  and  power  were  in 


Development  of  Belief  in  Bible  Times  gg 

Sheol  itself,  where  the  departed,  as  individuals, 
might  hear  his  resurrecting  voice.  While  like  the 
Babylonian  Aralu  and  the  Greek  Hades  in  being  an 
underworld,  unlike  Aralu  and  Hades,  Sheol  had  no 
king  nor  queen,  no  God  nor  devil,  of  its  own.  There 
was  no  communion  between  its  shades  and  Jehovah. 
The  popular,  indefinite,  unphilosophical  conception 
was  that  Sheol  was  deprived  of  all  that  made  the 
earthly  life  desirable.  The  exceptional  incident  of 
Samuel  has  an  interesting  parallel,  among  the 
Greeks,  in  Teiresias.  Of  this  blind  soothsayer  we 
read  in  the  tenth  book  of  the  Odyssey:  "To  him 
Persephone  hath  given  judgment,  even  in  death,  that 
he  alone  should  have  understanding;  but  the  other 
souls  sweep  shadow-like  around."  Yet  this  same 
poet  makes  his  hero  exclaim,  as  recorded  in  the  next 
book:  "Much  rather  would  I  work,  as  a  servant,  on 
a  poor  man's  field,  in  the  land  of  the  living,  than  rule 
over  all  the  hosts  of  the  departed  dead."  Even  the 
most  ambitious  Hebrew  could  say:  "Though  to 
reign  is  worth  ambition,  I  would  rather  serve  on 
earth  than  reign  in  Sheol ;  for  it  is  the  land  of  silence 
and  darkness  and  dust." 

1 1 8.  How  strange  the  pathetic  acquiescence  of 
even  the  godly  in  the  common  fate  of  Sheol!  The 
few  and  uncertain  searchlight  flashes  of  the  poets 
only  impress  us  the  more  with  the  dark  prospect  of 
so  many  and  in  so  many  generations.  As  indicated 
by  the  changed  prepositions  in  the  Revised  Version  of 


lOo  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

the  last  two  verses  of  the  sixteenth  psalm,  and  as 
suggested  by  the  parallelism  of  Hebrew  poetry  in  the 
last  verse  of  the  twenty-third  psalm,  these  two 
psalms  by  no  means  teach  the  greatly  developed 
belief  in  the  hereafter  that  they  often  have  been  used 
to  illustrate.  More  important  references  are  to  be 
found  in  the  seventeenth,  forty-ninth,  and  seventy- 
third  psalms,  and  in  the  fourteenth  and  nineteenth 
chapters  of  Job.  It  is  significant  that,  while  it  is  not 
safe  to  be  positive  about  the  approximate  dates  of 
the  poetic  passages  in  which  the  personal  hints  and 
hopes  are  found,  yet  the  indications  are  that,  for  the 
most  part,  they  reflect  the  lessons  learned  after 
586  B.  c.  What  is  true  of  the  poetic  suggestions  is 
also  true  of  the  very  few,  but  more  positive,  utter- 
ances of  the  prophets  concerning  the  resurrection 
of  the  individual.  It  was  not  until  the  discipline, 
following  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  developed 
the  individualism  of  the  earlier  poetry  and  prophecy, 
that  there  were  any  sure  expressions  concerning 
resurrection  of  the  individual. 

119.  The  reference  to  resurrection  in  Hos.  6:2; 
13:14,  and  Ezek.,  chap.  37,  are  national  and  figura- 
tive— in  the  first  to  a  national  recovery,  in  the  other 
to  a  national  restoration  to  Palestine.  In  a  late, 
somewhat  apocalyptic,  booklet  (chaps.  24-27), 
found  embedded  in  the  first  part  of  Isaiah,  we  find 
a  prayer  to  Jehovah  to  the  effect:  "Thou  hast 
increased  the  nation,  O  Jehovah,  but  how  about  the 


Development  of  Belief  in  Bible  Times  loi 

individuals  who  have  died?"  The  answer  comes: 
"Thy  dead  shall  live;  my  dead  bodies  shall  arise. 
Awake  and  sing,  ye  that  dwell  in  the  dust;  for  thy 
dew  is  as  the  dew  of  herbs,  and  the  earth  shall  cast 
forth  the  dead"  (Isa.  26: 19).  In  another  late  book, 
also  apocalyptic,  we  hear  the  fullest  Old  Testament 
notes  on  the  resurrection  of  the  individual:  "And 
many  of  them  that  sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth  shall 
awake,  some  to  everlasting  life  and  some  to  shame 
and  everlasting  contempt"  (Dan.  12:2).  Besides 
the  suggestive  poetic  additions  which  may  be  likened 
to  enriching  grace  notes,  we  have  thus  only  a  few, 
clear,  ringing  notes  in  the  Old  Testament  prelude  to 
the  New  Testament  song. 

120.  In  the  non-biblical  literature  of  Judaism  in 
Bible  times  the  representations  of  the  "last  things" 
are  often  speculative,  uncertain,  and  inconsistent. 
Sheol  (or  Hades,  as  it  was  called  in  the  parts  of  this 
extra-canonical  literature  that  were  written  in 
Greek)  was  sometimes  simply  the  place  of  shades, 
sometimes  the  place  of  punishment;  sometimes  it 
was  undivided,  sometimes  it  was  divided  into  different 
compartments  for  the  evil  and  the  good;  sometimes 
it  was  the  final  state,  sometimes  the  intermediate 
state.  Sometimes  the  resurrection  was  only  of  the 
righteous,  sometimes  of  the  wicked  as  well;  some- 
times of  all  Israel;  sometimes  of  all  men. 

121.  This  variety  of  beliefs,  suggestive  of  different 
lines  along  which  the  Old  Testament  views  might  be 


102  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

carried,  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  those  who  would 
understand  the  New  Testament  representations  of 
the  teaching  of  Jesus  concerning  the  hereafter.  A 
study  of  these  shows  that  they  are  expressed  in  the 
figurative  language  of  fire,  etc.  We  of  the  West  do 
well  to  remember  the  suggestive  words  given  to  us 
by  Mozoomdar,  a  seer  from  the  East,  when  he  said: 
"Jesus  was  an  oriental;  and  we  orientals  understand 
him.  He  spoke  in  figures.  We  understand  him. 
He  was  a  mystic.  You  take  him  literally;  you 
make  an  Englishman  of  him."  While  the  reported 
words  of  Jesus  are  not  to  be  taken  too  literally,  they 
are  nevertheless  free  from  the  sensuous  details  and 
extravagant  speculations  of  the  non-biblical  writings 
of  the  scribes.  Of  all  his  teaching,  however,  that 
concerning  the  hereafter  is  most  akin  to  that  of 
these  important  writings.  This  is  especially  true 
of  its  phraseology  and  its  form.  What  in  the  Old 
Testament  was  simply  a  germ  seems  to  be  developed 
by  him  in  the  highest  way  suggested  by  these  writings. 
Much  that  was  materialistic  was  spiritualized,  and 
much  was  omitted  that  was  gross. 

KINGDOM  OF  GOD  AND  MILLENNIUM 

122.  As  the  doctrine  of  the  kingdom  of  God  has 
an  important  bearing  upon  much-discussed  views 
of  the  hereafter,  let  us  notice  briefly  its  development. 
As  we  have  seen,  in  the  thought  of  the  early  times 
Jehovah's  interest  was  identified  with  that  of  the 


Development  of  Belief  in  Bible  Times  103 

people  and  land  from  which  he  received  his  worship. 
In  this  we  have  a  good  clue  to  an  understanding  of 
the  origin,  and  so  of  the  significance,  of  the  later 
doctrine  of  election.  If  his  people  was  dependent 
upon  him,  he  was  not  independent  of  it.  But  men 
"may  come  and  men  may  go,"  and  yet  the  nation 
may  "go  on  forever."  Jehovah's  great  concern, 
according  to  their  thought,  was  for  the  continuance 
of  his  people,  as  a  people,  rather  than  of  its  indi- 
viduals. This  it  is  that  explains  the  fact  that  in  the 
Old  Testament  the  emphasis  is  not  laid  upon  the 
future  of  the  individual — i.  e.,  the  question  of  immor- 
tality— but  rather  upon  the  continuance  and  per- 
fection of  the  nation — i.  e.,  upon  the  question  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  upon  the  earth.  Though  this  was 
primarily  for  the  nation  as  a  nation,  it  is  noticeable 
that  during  and  after  the  exile  other  nations,  and 
individuals  too,  had  an  increasing  share  in  the  con- 
demnation and  rewards  of  the  "great  and  terrible 
day"  that  was  to  come.  In  the  varying  uncanonical 
representations  the  kingdom  was  mainly  material- 
istic; and  it  was  to  have  a  sudden  advent.  In  the 
gospels  Jesus  is  represented  as  teaching  a  present, 
spiritual  kingdom;  and  though  its  consummation 
was  to  be  sudden,  it  was  among  the  things  that  grow. 
It  is  to  be  noticed  in  passing  that,  while  in  the  first 
three  gospels  the  kingdom  holds  a  central  place  in 
Christ's  teaching,  in  the  Fourth  Gospel  it  is  mentioned 
in  only  a  few  verses. 


I04  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

123.  A  recognition  of  the  development  of  the  idea 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  is  important  for  a  true  con- 
sideration of  the  doctrine  of  the  millennium,  and  for 
the  prevention  of  unwarranted  discussions  concern- 
ing it.  This,  as  the  word  itself  suggests,  is  a  period 
of  one  thousand  years;  or,  if  the  word  be  taken 
symbolically,  it  is  a  long,  but  limited,  period.  Dur- 
ing it  Christ  is  to  be  triumphant  in  the  earth.  At  the 
beginning  or  end  of  this  period  there  is  to  be  the 
second  coming  of  Christ.  Premillennialists,  as  the 
word  suggests,  believe  this  coming  will  be  before  the 
millennium.  Postmillennialists  believe  it  will  be 
after  the  millennium.  What  place  has  this  doctrine 
in  the  Scripture  ?  Though,  as  we  have  seen,  there 
is  in  the  Old  Testament  a  doctrine  of  the  kingdom, 
there  is  no  millennium.  It  is  the  same  in  the  gospels. 
Its  chief  support  lies  in  Rev.  20:46.  The  contexts 
of  other  passages  cited  in  its  support  show  no  mil- 
lennium; and  probably  they  would  never  have  been 
cited  in  that  connection  if  it  had  not  been  for  the 
one  in  Revelation. 

124.  How  shall  we  interpret  this  passage?  We 
have  seen  that  Revelation  differs  from  nearly  all  the 
rest  of  the  New  Testament  literature.  It  resembles 
the  apocalyptic  literature  of  the  uncanonical  writings, 
the  object  of  which  was  to  give  glowing  inspiration 
for  a  troubled  present.  This  literature,  in  portraying 
the  future,  describes  the  present  in  language  which, 
if  taken  literally,  is  simply  monstrous.     We  naturally 


Development  oj  Belie j  in  Bible  Times  105 

infer  that  Revelation,  in  speaking  of  the  bottomless 
pit,  the  lake  of  fire,  etc.,  uses  language  in  a  large 
symbolical  way.  If  this  passage  in  the  twentieth 
chapter  be  taken  altogether  literally,  it  would  indeed 
be  like  "  islanding  in  cloudland."  Yet,  rightly  inter- 
preted, with  all  due  allowance  for  its  figurative  lan- 
guage, there  is  back  of  it  a  millennial  belief.  This 
passage  is,  however,  the  sole  exception  in  the  whole 
New  Testament. 

125.  With  this  exception,  whatever  else  it  may 
or  may  not  be,  the  millennium  is  not  biblical.  Its 
power  in  the  early  church  was  due  to  the  influence 
upon  the  Jewish  Christians  of  their  much-prized 
non-biblical  writings.  Historically  considered,  the 
doctrine  of  the  millennium  (with  its  thought  of  the 
second  coming  of  Christ)  is  but  the  cocoon  of  the  old 
Jewish  temporal  kingdom  (with  its  thought  of  the 
coming  Messiah)  still  clinging  to  the  spiritual  king- 
dom of  Christ.  A  most  interesting  study,  indeed,  is 
that  of  the  relation  between  the  doctrine  of  the  second 
coming  of  Christ  and  the  expectations  disappointed 
by  his  first.  In  view  of  the  little  support  that  there 
is  for  many  of  the  beliefs  concerning  the  hereafter, 
the  dogmatic  utterances  (especially  by  the  untrained) 
concerning  future  probation,  intermediate  state  (with 
its  doctrine  of  purgatory),  the  millennium,  and  such 
questions,  forcibly  recall  the  words  of  a  devout 
scholar.  As  professor  of  theology  he  wrote  concern- 
ing his  teaching  in  eschatology  (last  things):    "In 


io6  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

this  entire  subject  special  care  will  be  taken  to  be 
faithful  to  our  human  ignorance." 

SATAN 

126.  It  is  this  special  care  that,  in  view  of  the 
modern  teachings  of  science  and  philosophy,  has, 
among  students,  so  noticeably  lessened  dogmatic 
utterances  concerning  the  belief  in  Satan.  A  recent 
great  work  in  systematic  theology  omits  all  reference 
to  such  a  being.  In  the  Scripture,  however,  the 
word  "Satan,"  which  means  "adversary,"  is  found 
about  fifty  times;  the  word  "devil,"  which  means 
"slanderer,"  over  thirty  times;  and  the  words  for 
demon  (in  the  Authorized  Version  wrongly  rendered 
"devil"),  over  seventy  times.  Of  these  over  one 
hundred  and  fifty  references,  only  about  thirty  are 
found  in  the  Old  Testament.  Remembering  that 
the  Old  Testament  is  three  and  a  half  times  larger 
than  the  New  Testament,  this  means  that  these 
words  are  found,  say,  twenty  times  more  frequently 
in  the  New  Testament  than  in  the  Old  Testament, 
where  they  are  found,  mainly  if  not  altogether,  in  the 
writings  after  586  b.  c. 

127.  It  seems  that  it  was  not  until  after  that  date 
that  the  serpent  of  the  Garden  of  Eden  was  identified 
with  Satan.  After  their  Babylonian  captors  were 
conquered  by  the  Persians,  the  Jews  doubtless  were 
in  touch  with  Persian  beliefs.  According  to  these, 
Ormuzd,  as  god  of  goodness  and  light,  was  opposed 


Development  oj  Belief  in  Bible  Times  107 

by  Ahriman,  the  evil  spirit  of  darkness.  Beneath 
these  were  different  orders  of  good  and  evil  spirits. 
How  much  the  "germ  which  lay  hidden  in  Judaism 
was  fertilized  by  contact  with  the  Persian  religion" 
is  a  question.  In  II  Samuel  24:  i,  written  before  the 
exile,  we  read  that  ^'Jehovah  moved  David  against 
Israel."  In  I  Chron.  21:1,  written  after  the  contact 
with  the  Persian  religion,  the  Chronicler  reproduces 
the  earlier  passages  thus:  ''Satan  stood  up  against 
Israel  and  moved  David  to  number  Israel."  Though 
before  the  exile  there  was  a  belief  in  evil  spirits,  they 
nevertheless  were  agents  of  God.  Even  as  late  as 
the  exile  itself  Jehovah  is  represented  as  saying:  "I 
create  evil."  In  writings  as  late  as  Zechariah,  in 
the  third  chapter  of  which  Satan  appears  in  the  r61e 
of  an  accuser,  and  the  first  part  of  Job,  where  he 
appears  as  a  tempter,  he,  in  both  cases,  is  still  an 
official  of  God.  By  New  Testament  times,  however, 
he  had  become  God's  powerful  enemy. 

128.  In  the  New  Testament  itself  we  see  the  belief 
that,  as  God  had  his  Christ  and  his  order  of  angels, 
so  Satan  had  his  Antichrist  and  his  order  of  demons. 
To  the  agency  of  these  demons  physical  and  mental 
evils,  such  as  epilepsy  and  insanity,  were  supposed  to 
be  due.  While  in  the  Fourth  Gospel  such  references 
are  noticeably  few,  in  the  first  three  gospels  the  fre- 
quent references  to  the  diseased  as  those  who  were 
possessed  with  demons  clearly  reflect  the  belief  of 
the  times.     The  belief  was  held  among  other  peoples 


io8  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

as  well  as  among  the  Jews.  As  far  as  the  Jews  were 
concerned,  it  is  noteworthy  that  it  is  written  in  Acts 
23:8;  that  the  Sadducees  "say  that  there  is  no  resur- 
rection, neither  angel  nor  spirit,  but  the  Pharisees," 
who  more  than  the  Sadducees  were  represented  by 
the  later  non-biblical  writings,  "confess  both." 
Throughout  the  New  Testament  there  is  manifest 
a  strong  belief  in  Satan  and  his  hosts.  As  sug- 
gested already,  and  as  will  be  seen  more  clearly  in 
Parts  III  and  IV,  change  of  view  does  not  neces- 
sarily mean  improvement  of  view.  All  four  sections 
of  this  chapter  have  shown  changes  in  beliefs.  The 
result  of  these  changes  differ  very  much  in  worth. 
For  instance  (and  this  is  preparatory  to  Part  IV), 
modern  scholarship  is  favorably  disposed  to  the 
changed  views  of  Deity  and  of  the  relation  between 
Deity  and  man,  rather  than  to  the  later  belief  in 
Satan  and  his  hosts.  The  next  chapter,  after  con- 
sidering the  development  of  the  messianic  idea,  will 
give  in  a  word  the  attitude  of  modern  scholarship  to 
the  question  of  the  relation  between  Jesus  and  the 
Old  Testament  hopes. 


CHAPTER  IX 

JESUS  AS  THE  CHRIST 

MESSIANIC  HOPES 

129.  We  should  not  forget  that  a  main  part  of  the 
road  over  which  Christianity  through  Judaism  came 
to  its  own  was  built  by  the  Jewish  hope  of  a  coming 
Messiah.  Remembering  that  the  Hebrew  word 
"Messiah,"  which  means  "anointed,"  corresponds 
to  the  Greek  word  "Christ,"  let  us  ask  about  the 
relation  between  the  Jewish  Christ  and  Jesus  Christ. 
Who  was  the  Jewish  Christ — what  was  the  Jewish 
conception  of  the  nature  and  work  of  the  expected 
Messiah?  In  the  New  Testament  we  find  many 
references  to  this  Jewish  expectation.  Indications 
of  its  development  are  seen  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  to  a  great  extent  in  the  non-biblical  literature  of 
the  Jews.  The  process  of  the  development,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  determined  with  desirable  definite- 
ness.  We  are  uncertain  concerning  the  dates  of  the 
different  messianic  passages  and  the  significance  of 
their  very  different,  if  not  conflicting,  representations 
of  the  messianic  idea.  Before  they  had  any  definite 
thought  of  a  coming  person,  the  messianic  idea  may 
be  found  in  the  early  history  as  one  of  the  seeds  of 
hope  that  "springs  eternal  in  the  human  breast." 
This  hope  was  germinated  and  developed  in  the  soil 
109 


no  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

of  experience  and  in  the  varying  light  of  changing 
conceptions  of  God.  It  was  not  until  somewhat 
late  in  this  process  that  the  terms  "Anointed" 
("Messiah"),  "Son  of  David,"  "Son  of  man,"  and 
"Son  of  God"  were  used  as  distinctive  titles  of  the 
expected  Messiah. 

130.  When  the  prosperity  under  King  David,  fol- 
lowed by  a  decline  in  the  national  fortunes,  led  to  an 
idealization  of  his  reign,  the  varying  national  hope 
looked  for  a  Davidic  king  or  kings  who  would  repre- 
sent Jehovah  and  reign  for  him  as  his  anointed  in  a 
material  kingdom  of  God.  The  still  later  experi- 
ences of  the  nation,  especially  that  of  the  captivity, 
modified  the  conception  of  the  coming  kingdom  by 
giving  more  room  in  it  for  other  nations  and  for 
individuals  as  individuals.  The  greatest  change, 
however,  was  through  the  prophets'  increasingly 
moral  conception  of  God.  Through  these  higher 
conceptions  of  God  the  blessings  of  the  coming  king- 
dom were  looked  upon  as  more  spiritual;  and  the 
conditions  of  obtaining  them  became,  not  simply 
rites  and  sacrifices,  but  repentance  and  righteousness. 
Thus  it  was  that  Jesus  and  his  forerunner  were  able 
to  preach  so  impressively  "Repent  ye"  and  "Bring 
forth  fruit  meet  for  repentance,"  "for  the  kingdom 
of  heaven  is  at  hand." 

131.  For  the  majority  (including  the  disciples) 
the  predominating  conception  was  that  a  son  (i.  e., 
a    descendant)     of    David    would    reign    over    a 


Jesus  as  the  Christ  iii 

political  kingdom.  Next  in  importance  to  this 
seems  to  have  been  the  moral  conception  of  the 
prophets.  What  indications  are  there  in  the  Old 
Testament,  in  the  uncanonical  literature  of  the  Jews, 
or  in  the  New  Testament,  to  show  that  the  Jews 
entertained  the  thought  that  their  salvation  would  be 
through  the  suffering  of  the  Messiah?  Though, 
in  its  development,  the  messianic  idea  ramified  in 
many  and  very  different  directions,  we  do  not  find 
the  idea  of  salvation  through  suffering  as  one  of  its 
main  branches  when  Jesus  came.  Whatever  our 
view  of  the  fifty-third  chapter  of  Isaiah  (whether  we 
look  upon  its  suffering  servant  as  collective  or  indi- 
vidual, as  ideal  or  real),  when  Jesus  came  it  was  not 
popularly  understood  as  referring  to  the  one  who 
was  to  come  as  the  Messiah.  According  to  the 
representations  of  subsequent  uncanonical  literature, 
this  coming  king  could  have  prophetic  characteristics, 
and  could  even  be  mortal ;  but  the  salvation  of  others 
through  his  own  suffering  and  death  was  not  thought 
to  be  for  him. 

132.  Such  a  thought  would  have  been,  then,  as 
later,  "to  the  Jews  a  stumbling-block  and  to  the 
Greeks  foolishness."  On  part  of  an  old  wall,  dis- 
covered in  1858,  is  a  picture  by  means  of  which,  it 
is  supposed,  some  Christian,  of  maybe  the  third 
century,  was  mocked.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  work 
of  one  of  his  companions.  Underneath  a  rude 
drawing  of  one  in  the  attitude  of  devotion  before  a 


TI2  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

crucified  man  with  a  beast's  head,  is  scrawled  in 
Greek:  "Alexamenos  worships  God" — "to  the 
Greeks  foolishness."  In  one  of  Dore's  largest 
paintings  Jesus,  with  the  disciples  near  him  and  the 
accompanying  multitudes  shouting  hosannas  to  the 
son  of  David,  is  making  his  triumphant  entry  into 
Jerusalem.  In  another  (Dore's  masterpiece)  Jesus 
is  represented  as  a  condemned  criminal.  In  leaving 
the  Praetorium  for  his  ignominious  exit  from  Jerusa- 
lem, he  is  forsaken  even  by  his  disciples.  To  them, 
then,  as  then  and  later  to  their  countrymen,  the 
thought  of  a  crucified  Messiah  was  "a  stumbling- 
block." 

133.  As  related  to  the  variously  conceived  Jewish 
Christ,  who  was  Jesus  Christ  ?  Though  there  is 
uncertainty  about  the  process,  there  is  no  question 
about  the  fact,  that  Christianity,  in  its  beginnings, 
did  adopt  and  adapt  the  messianic  hopes  that  were 
current  among  the  Jews  when  Jesus  came.  In  fact, 
the  early  Christians  made  these  fundamental  in  their 
ministry  to  the  Jews,  as  later,  in  their  ministry  to  the 
gentiles,  they  adopted  and  adapted  the  Greek  con- 
ception of  the  logos  or  word.  Did  Jesus  adopt  this 
Jewish  hope  ?  Did  he  adopt  this  Greek  conception  ? 
If  he  did  adopt,  did  he  adapt  and  how  ?  What  did 
Jesus  think  of  himself?  Did  he  claim  for  himself 
a  virgin-birth  and  that  he  was  the  Word,  the  Messiah, 
and  the  Son  of  God  ?    Important  questions  these. 


Jesus  as  the  Christ  113 

WHAT  JESUS  THOUGHT  OF  HIMSELF 

134.  Did  Jesus  claim  a  virgin-birth  and  that  he 
was  the  Logos  ?  A  consideration  of  the  Greek  con- 
ception of  the  logos  would  take  us  back  to  Plato's 
view  of  "ideas."  We  have  noticed  that  the  question 
is  not  whether  the  "Word"  of  John  1:1  has  any 
connection  with  the  language  and  thought  of  Plato. 
The  question  is  rather  concerning  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  connection.  There  is  no  question  that 
in  the  New  Testament  the  claim  is  made  that  Jesus 
is  the  Logos  or  Word.  The  unique  prologue  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel  teaches  the  pre-existence  (vs.  i)  and 
the  incarnation  (vs.  14)  of  the  Word.  The  nearest 
parallel  to  this  in  the  New  Testament  is  the  famous 
passage,  Phil.  2 : 5-9,  which  teaches  the  pre-existence 
and  self-emptying  of  Jesus.  We  are  surprised  to 
find  that  neither  in  Philippians  nor  in  the  Fourth 
Gospel  is  there  any  reference  to  the  virgin-birth. 
In  fact,  this  is  found  only  twice  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment— once  in  the  first  and  once  in  the  third 
gospel ;  and  even  in  these  there  is  no  record  of  Jesus 
himself  claiming  it.  All  this  suggests  that  "the 
question  of  physical  methods  how  God  got  himself 
embodied  is  far  less  important  than  the  ethical  and 
spiritual  question  how  God  got  himself  so  mar- 
velously  expressed."  As  there  is  no  record  that  Jesus 
claimed  the  virgin-birth,  so  there  is  no  record  that  he 
claimed  to  be  the  Logos.  It  is  significant  that  even 
the  Fourth  Gospel,  though  representing  Jesus  as  the 


114  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Logos  and  as  claiming  pre-existence  for  himself,  does 
not  represent  him  as  adopting  and  adapting  to  him- 
self the  current  philosophical  conceptions  of  the 
Logos  or  Word. 

135.  Very  different  is  the  representation  of  his 
treatment  of  the  current  Jewish  hope  of  a  Messiah. 
In  view  of  its  remarkable  elasticity  and  the  way 
it  was  variously  conceived,  he  could  easily  have 
adopted  it  without  being  committed  to  any  one 
definite  conception  that  was  already  held.  However 
we  may  endeavor  not  merely  to  get  back  to,  but  back 
£»/,  the  gospels,  it  is  difficult  to  get  away  from  the 
conviction  that,  as  applied  to  himself,  Jesus  did 
adopt  and  adapt  this  current  messianic  hope.  Hu- 
manly speaking,  it  was  thus  he  got  his  standing- 
ground  in  Judaism  in  order  that  he  might  lift  the 
world.  Of  the  four  messianic  terms — "Messiah" 
("Christ,"  "Anointed"),  "Son  of  David,"  "Son  of 
man,"  and  "Son  of  God" — the  meaning  of  the  first 
is  seen  in  the  meaning  of  the  others.  How  were 
these  used  ?  How  about  the  term  "Son  of  David"  ? 
It  is  significant  that,  though  it  had  a  large  place  in 
current  thought  when  Jesus  came,  we  find  no  in- 
stance in  the  New  Testament  where  Jesus  himself 
used  the  term,  as  applied  to  himself.  Instead,  we 
find,  according  to  Mark  12:35-37,  that  he  suggested 
a  difficulty  in  the  way  of  accepting  the  scribal  teach- 
ing that  Christ  is  the  Son  of  David. 

136.  How  about  the  term  "Son  of  man"?  The 
indications  are  that  in  the  time  of  Jesus  it  was  not 


Jesus  as  the  Christ  115 

recognized — at  least  not  commonly — as  messianic. 
While  there  are  only  two  or  three  instances  of  its  use 
by  others,  there  is  no  question  but  that  it  was  fre- 
quently used  by  Jesus  himself,  and  often  most  evi- 
dently of  himself.  What  he  meant  by  it,  and  why  he 
used  it,  are  very  important  questions,  but  difficult  to 
answer.  The  difficulty  is  increased  by  the  fact  that 
in  Aramaic  the  probable  word  for  "son  of  man" 
really  meant,  not  a  particular  man,  but  "mankind." 
In  Ps.  8 : 4  we  read 

What  is  man  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him 
And  the  son  of  man  that  thou  visitest  him  ? 

Here  the  parallelism  of  Hebrew  poetry  suggests  that 
"son  of  man"  is  equivalent  to  "man."  To  what 
extent  the  view  of  Jesus  was  influenced  by  a  study 
of  this  psalm  and  of  the  second  psalm,  and  of  the 
use  of  the  term  son  of  man  in  Dan.  7 :  13,  we  do  not 
know.  In  eighty  or  more  passages  it  occurs,  as 
used,  on  about  forty  different  occasions,  by  Jesus 
himself.  From  a  study  of  these  we  are  led  to  believe 
that,  while  his  use  of  it  was  messianic,  yet,  as  is 
suggested  by  the  Aramaic  word,  it  was  used  by  him, 
not  in  a  narrow,  Jewish,  but  in  a  broader,  deeper, 
human  sense.  This  sense  would,  with  less  difficulty, 
admit  the  thought  of  the  Messiah  suffering  to  save. 
It  could  be  said  of  the  Son  of  man  who  came  "to 
seek  and  to  save  that  which  was  lost,"  that  he  must 
"suffer  many  things"  and  "be  killed"  to  "give  his 
life  a  ransom  for  many." 


ii6  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

137.  How  about  the  term  "Son  of  God"?  In 
the  Old  Testament  different  individuals,  and  the 
whole  nation  as  Jehovah's  peculiar  people,  are 
figuratively  referred  to  as  his  sons.  According  to 
some  scholars  this  figure  is  used  in  a  messianic  sense 
in  a  few  Old  Testament  passages.  It  is  also  claimed 
that  in  the  uncanonical  literature  the  term  "Son" 
appears  as  a  title  of  the  expected  Messiah.  There 
is  no  question  but  that,  as  such,  it  sometimes  was 
applied  to  him  in  the  New  Testament.  What  did  it 
mean  to  Jesus  himself  ?  Through  his  conception  of 
his  relation  to  the  Father  it  had  a  meaning  into  the 
depths  of  which  I  do  not  feel  able  to  go.  One  of  the 
world's  greatest  scholars  has  said : 

In  this  consciousness  he  knows  himself  to  be  the  Son 
called  and  instituted  of  God  to  be  the  Son  of  God,  and  hence 
he  can  say:  "My  God  and  my  Father;"  and  into  this  invo- 
cation he  puts  something  which  belongs  to  no  one  but  him- 
self. How  he  came  to  this  consciousness  of  the  unique  char- 
acter of  his  relation  to  God  as  a  Son;  how  he  came  to  the 
consciousness  of  his  power,  and  to  the  consciousness  of  the 
obligation  and  the  mission  which  this  power  carries  with  it, 
is  his  secret,  and  no  psychology  will  ever  fathom  it. 

In  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  man  we  see  the  one  that  so 
wrought  and  taught  among  his  fellows  that,  at  first 
in  a  messianic  sense  and  later  in  a  higher  sense,  they 
looked  upon  him  as  the  Son  of  God.  In  Jesus  as  the 
Son  of  God  we  apprehend,  but  do  not  claim  to  com- 
prehend, how  he  was  so  much  at  home  with  God  his 
Father  that  he  could  bring  his  fellows  into  such  rela- 


Jesus  as  the  Christ  117 

tionship  with  God  that  they  too,  gentile  and  Jew, 
could  call  God  "Father." 

138.  We  do  not  know  when  Jesus  first  was  able 
definitely  to  say  to  himself:  "I  am  the  Messiah." 
We  do  not  know  just  when  the  cross  came  above 
his  horizon  and  he  felt  that  it  was  as  the  suffering 
Messiah  he  was  to  be  the  savior  of  his  people.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  he  early  thought  of  God  as 
his  Father;  that  after  his  baptism,  if  not  before,  he 
looked  upon  himself  as  the  Messiah;  and  that  before 
he  came  to  Calvary,  as  far  back  on  the  road  as 
Caesarea  Philippi,  he  had  a  vision  of  the  cross. 
Though  the  gospels  tell  us  that  he  told  his  vision  to 
the  disciples,  it  was  not  until  after  he  was  crucified 
that  they  could  believe  and  seek  to  prove  from  Scrip- 
ture that  it  "behooved  the  Christ  to  suffer."  Speak- 
ing in  a  general  way,  before  coming  to  the  cross 
the  kingly,  prophetic,  suffering  servant,  and  other 
streams  of  Jewish  hopes,  though  coming  nearer  to- 
gether and  exerting  some  influence  over  one  another, 
were  commonly  kept  distinct ;  but  in  passing  the  hill 
of  Calvary  they  seem  to  have  quickly  converged, 
and  lo ! — a  marvel :  instead  of  a  Jewish  Jordan,  that 
might  have  ended  in  a  Dead  Sea,  there  was  a  mighty 
river  flowing  for  the  blessing  of  all  nations  and  into 
the  limitless  ocean  of  the  very  life  and  love  of  God. 

JESUS  AS  GOAL  OF  OLD  TESTAMENT  HOPES 

139.  Advanced  Christian  scholarship  today  agrees 
with  the  early  Christians  in  looking  upon  "Jesus 


ii8  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Christ  and  him  crucified"  as  the  center  into  which 
converged  the  different  radii  of  Old  Testament 
hopes.  It  reaches  the  same  goal,  though  it  reaches 
it  in  a  somewhat  different  way.  It  shuns  applying 
to  Jesus  the  details  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
forced,  fanciful,  and  often  fantastic  way  of  the  early, 
and  even  of  the  later,  times.  Nevertheless,  it  sees 
fulfilled — i.  e.  filled  full — through  him  what  was  but 
partly  filled  by  the  Old  Testament  views  of  God. 
It  does  not  say,  as  has  actually  been  taught,  that  the 
five  stones  for  David's  sling  stand  for  J-e-s-u-s:  for 
it  might  be  suggested  facetiously  that,  viewed  from 
the  other  side,  they  stand  for  S-a-t-a-n.  It  does  see, 
however,  in  the  story  of  David  and  Goliath,  truth 
that  was  there  before  Jesus  came,  but  which,  because 
he  came,  we  are  better  able  to  understand.  Through- 
out the  Old  Testament  it  sees  Jesus  prefigured  and 
foreshadowed  in  the  enunciation  of  principles  that 
were  exemplified  in  him,  and  in  the  expression  of 
ideals  and  hopes  that,  when  purified  of  their  dross, 
had  their  golden  realization  in  him.  In  their 
"splendid  failures"  to  reach  the  Eldorado  of  their 
dreams  it  sees  that  the  Old  Testament  worthies 
helped  to  chart  the  main  over  which,  as  crossed  and 
mapped  out  by  Jesus  himself,  we  may  reach  the 
golden  shore  of  the  true  kingdom  of  God.  It  sees 
how,  though  colored  by  the  conceptions  and  experi- 
ences of  the  times,  the  fifty-third  chapter  of  Isaiah 
and  kindred  passages  contain  the  principle  of  salva- 


Jesus  as  the  Christ  119 

tion  through  another's  suffering,  and  that  this  prin- 
ciple was  so  exemplified  in  the  life  and  death  of 
Jesus  that  its  most  sacred  symbol  in  all  the  world  is 
the  cross  on  which  he  died. 

140.  The  words  of  E.  S.  Ames  in  the  American 
Journal  0}  Theology  are  appropriate  in  closing  this 
our  last  chapter  on  the  Bible  and  its  times: 

It  is  an  impressive  fact  that  the  two  typical  Jewish  con- 
ceptions of  the  redemptive  work  of  Jehovah  were  the  counter- 
parts of  two  contrasted  periods  of  the  national  life.  One  was 
projected  from  the  background  of  the  golden  age  of  the  mon- 
archy under  King  David.  As  he  put  to  silence  his  enemies 
and  established  a  glorious  kingdom,  so  God  would  some  day, 
by  another  mighty  one,  deliver  his  people  and  make  them 
supreme.  The  other  view  of  divine  deliverance  was  an 
expression  of  the  humbled  and  chastened  national  spirit  in 
the  period  of  oppression  and  exile.  Humility  and  suffering 
innocence  were  its  central  elements.  In  the  end,  when  his 
life  was  completed,  the  character  and  work  of  Jesus  con- 
formed best  to  the  latter  type,  while  his  own  experience  and 
powerful  personality  added  vividness  and  strength  to  the 
ethical,  social  conception  of  God  as  a  loving  Father. 


PART  III 
CHRISTIANITY  SINCE  BIBLE  TIMES 


CHAPTER  X 

HALF-WAY  TO  15 17  A.  D. 

A   BACKGROUND   OF  GENERAL   HISTORY 

141.  The  aim  of  Part  III,  which  begins  with  this 
chapter,  is  not  to  preach  historical  sermons,  but 
simply  to  give  a  survey  of  the  whole  field  of  church 
history.  Dividing  it  into  three  periods,  we  will  first 
give  attention  to  the  leading  topics  of  each  period. 
Then,  with  these  periods  in  mind,  we  will  give  atten- 
tion to  missions,  general  culture,  and  religious  be- 
liefs of  the  whole  history  since  Bible  times.  What 
are  our  three  periods  ?  What  586  b.  c.  is  in  the  his- 
tory of  Bible  times,  1517  a.  d.  is  in  the  history  of  the 
Christian  church.  The  fixing  of  this  one  date  will 
help  keep  in  mind  three  periods  into  which  church 
history  may  be  conveniently  divided — half  the 
way  to  1517,  from  that  to  1517,  and  since  1517.  In 
the  first  period  the  church  was  one ;  in  the  second 
it  was  divided  into  two  great  divisions;  in  the  third, 
into  three.  The  close  of  the  first  period  (about  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century)  was  about  the  date  of 
the  death  of  John  of  Damascus,  the  last  of  the  church 
fathers.  The  first  period,  therefore,  may  be  called 
the  period  of  the  church  fathers.  In  it  the  Roman 
Empire  is  divided  into  the  Eastern  and  the  Western 
Empires;  Rome  itself  is  taken  by  the  barbarians  of 
123 


124  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

the  North:  Mohammedanism  rises,  spreads  rapidly, 
and  is  checked;  and  Christianity  is  persecuted, 
spreads,  opposes  heresies,  and  writes  creeds. 

142.  Titus,  by  whom  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  in 
70  A.  D.,  succeeded  his  father  Vespasian,  and  was 
succeeded  in  the  first  century  by  Domitian  and 
Nerva.  To  the  second  century  belong  Trajan, 
Hadrian,  Antonius  Pius,  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  Com- 
modus.  In  less  than  a  century  following  there  were 
many  army-made  emperors,  including  Decius  in  the 
first  half  of  the  third  century.  Joint  rule  and  civil 
war,  ending  in  324  a.  d.,  resulted  in  the  sole  rule 
of  Constantine,  the  first  Christian  emperor.  In  the 
following  year,  325  (a  date  that  may  well  be  kept  in 
mind),  was  the  great  Council  of  Nicaea,  the  first 
of  the  ecumenical  (i.e.,  "universal"  or  "general") 
councils  of  the  early  church.  Constantine  built 
Constantinople  and  made  it  the  seat  of  his  govern- 
ment. Julian  the  Apostate  was  one  of  the  emperors 
who  succeeded  him  before  the  time  of  Theodosius 
I.  Zealously  orthodox,  Theodosius  I,  called  "  The 
Great,"  in  the  thought  of  the  early  church  had  a  glory 
second  only  to  that  of  Constantine.  After  his  death 
in  395,  the  empire  was  divided  into  the  Eastern,  or 
Greek,  and  the  Western,  or  Latin,  Empires.  While 
the  Eastern  Empire  lived  over  a  millennium  longer 
(until  1453),  the  Western  Empire  lasted  less  than  a 
century.  Rome  fell  in  476— four  centuries  after  it 
had  destroyed  Jerusalem. 


Half-Way  to  1517  A.  D.  125 

143.  Odoacer,  its  Teutonic  conqueror,  belonged 
to  a  much  later  westward  movement  of  Aryans  than 
that  which  brought  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  the 
two  great  European  peninsulas  inside  the  Mediter- 
ranean. In  the  extreme  west  of  Europe  were  the 
Celtic  Aryans,  represented  today  by  the  Irish,  Welsh, 
and  Highland  Scotch.  Eastern  Europe  was  overrun 
by  the  Slavonic  Aryans,  among  whom  the  Russians 
are  classed.  In  central  and  western  Europe,  between 
Celts  and  Slavs,  were  the  Teutonic  Aryans,  including 
Goths,  Vandals,  Burgundians,  Franks,  Saxons, 
Lombards,  Danes,  etc.  Of  these  the  Franks  under 
Clovis  proved  to  be  the  strongest. 

144.  It  was  while,  in  Europe,  the  Franks  were 
under  the  rule  of  the  house  of  Clovis  (Merovingian) 
that,  in  Arabia,  the  Mohammedan  era  began  with 
the  Hegira — i.e.,  Mohammed's  "departure"  or 
flight  from  Mecca  to  Medina  in  622.  This  date  is  in 
the  Mohammedan  calendar  what  the  supposed  date 
of  Christ's  birth  is  in  the  Christian.  In  less  than  a 
century  and  a  half  later  Mohammedanism  had  not 
only  overrun  Arabia  and  the  three  river-territories 
of  early  Semitic  history,  but  had  gone  a  thousand 
miles  farther  east  in  Asia,  to  the  river  Indus  on  the 
borders  of  India;  in  Africa,  two  thousand  miles 
farther  west,  to  the  very  ocean;  and  in  Europe,  over 
the  Spanish  peninsula  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks. 
Besides  Mecca,  among  its  important  centers  were 
Bagdad  on  the  Tigris  (one  of  its  caliphs,  or  succes- 


126  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

sors  of  Mohammed,  was  Haroun  al  Raschid,  of  the 
Arabian  Nights),  Cairo  on  the  Nile  near  the  Delta, 
and  Cordova  and  Granada  in  Spain.  Defeated  at 
Constantinople,  and  thus  failing  to  enter  Europe 
from  Asia  Minor,  and  seeking  to  penetrate  into 
Europe  farther  than  Spain,  they  were  defeated  at 
Poitiers  by  Charles  Mart  el.  As  mayor  of  the  palace 
he  was  the  power  behind  the  Merovingian  throne. 

FATHERS,  PAGAN  LEADERS,  AND   PERSECUTIONS 

145.  Mohammedanism  overran  the  territory  from 
which  had  come  most  of  the  church  fathers.  These 
were  divided  by  the  Council  of  Nicaea  (325)  into 
two  classes — the  ante-Nicene  and  post-Nicene  fa- 
thers. Some  of  them  wrote  in  Greek  and  some  in 
Latin.  Their  writings  are  what  is  called  the  pa- 
tristic literature.  A  consideration  of  this  begins  with 
the  writings  that  have  been  attributed  to  the  so- 
called  apostolic  fathers — i.  e.,  writings  supposed  to 
have  come  from  those  in  close  fellowship  with  the 
apostles.  Patristic  literature  also  includes  the  apolo- 
getic fathers  (apologists),  who  wrote  defenses  of 
Christianity  against  the  attacks  of  Jews  and  others. 
Belonging  to  the  ante-Nicene  period,  and  in  the  time 
of  their  origin  overlapping  the  New  Testament  it- 
self, we  have,  corresponding  to  the  Old  Testament 
Apocrypha,  a  New  Testament  Apocrypha.  It  has 
gospels,  acts,  epistles,  and  an  apocalypse.  Among 
the  ante-Nicene  fathers  who  wrote  in  Greek  was  the 


Halj-Way  to  1517  A.  D.  127 

philosophical,  allegorizing  Origen  of  Alexandria. 
Prominent  among  those  who  wrote  in  Latin  was  the 
practical,  forceful  Tertullian  of  Carthage.  Of  very 
great  value  for  the  ante-Nicene  period  are  the  his- 
torical writings  of  Eusebius  of  Caesarea.  The  pe- 
riod of  his  bishopric  included  the  date  of  the  Council 
of  Nicaea,  325.  The  great  worth  of  his  history  is 
due  mainly  to  its  extracts  from  the  early  Christian 
and  non-Christian  writings  that  have  been  lost. 

146.  The  post-Nicene  fathers  include,  among  the 
Latin  fathers,  Augustine,  Jerome,  and  Gregory  the 
Great,  with  whom  the  Latin  fathers  end  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventh  century.  The  Greek  fathers 
include,  among  many  others,  Athanasius  of  Alexan- 
dria, Chrysostom,  and  John  of  Damascus,  with  whom 
they  end  in  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century.  As 
far  back  as  the  sixth  century,  however,  among  both 
the  Latins  and  the  Greeks,  and  indicating  that  inde- 
pendent work  was  practically  over,  we  have  mainly 
catenae — i.  e.,  collections  of  quotations  from  writings 
of  the  distinguished  fathers  of  the  early  centuries. 
The  authority  of  these  writings  so  increased  with  the 
lapse  of  time  that  they  came  to  rival  the  Bible  itself: 

147.  Of  pagan  leaders  in  the  anti-Nicene  period 
three  names  may  be  mentioned,  one  in  each  of  the 
first  three  centuries — Apollonius  of  Tyana,  Celsus, 
and  Porphyry.  The  philosophy  of  Pythagoras,  re- 
vised and  mixed  with  other  elements,  and  so  called 
Neo-Pythagoreanism,  had,  as  its  chief  representa- 


128  Christianity  and  lis  Bible 

tive  in  the  first  century,  Apollonius  of  Tyana  in 
Cappadocia.  Born  about  the  time  of  Christ,  he 
lived  nearly  a  century.  Philosopher,  ascetic,  and 
religious  reformer  with  numerous  followers,  he 
claimed  the  gift  of  prophecy  and  the  power  to  work 
miracles.  He  has  often  been  compared  with  Jesus, 
and  the  account  of  his  life  by  Philostratus  with  the 
four  gospels'  accounts  of  Jesus. 

148.  In  the  second  century  paganism  strongly 
asserted  itself  through  Celsus,  its  earliest  real  advo- 
cate as  against  Christianity.  His  polemic,  a  large 
part  of  which  has  come  down  to  us  in  the  answer  of 
Origen,  was  written  near  the  beginning  of  the  last 
quarter  of  the  century.  The  Jew  introduced  in  the 
first  part  of  his  work 

repeats  the  slanders  current  among  the  Jews,  representing 
Jesus  as  a  vagabond  impostor,  his  mother  as  an  adulteress, 

his  miracles  and  resurrection  as  lying  fables Almost 

everything  that  modern  opponents  down  to  our  own  day  have 
advanced  against  the  gospel  history  and  doctrine  is  found 
here  wrought  out  with  original  force  and  subtlety,  inspired 
with  burning  hatred  and  bitter  irony,  and  highly  spiced  with 
invective.     (Kurtz.) 

•  149.  As  an  opponent  of  Christianity,  Porphyry 
in  the  third  century  took  the  place  of  Celsus  in  the 
second.  He  claimed  that  there  were  contradictions 
in  the  Bible,  that  Paul  and  Peter  differed,  that 
Daniel  was  late,  and  that  the  common,  allegorical 
method  of  interpretation  was  wrong.  He  also,  in  a 
collection  of   sayings,  gave  to  paganism  a  heathen 


Half-Way  to  1517  A.  D.  129 

Bible,  as  Philostratus  in  his  picture  of  Apollonius 
had  endeavored  to  give  it  a  heathen  savior.  He 
was  a  Neoplatonist,  or  representative  of  that  system 
of  thought  that,  especially  under  the  influence  of 
Platonism,  sought  to  combine  in  itself  the  best  of 
religion  and  philosophy.  It  had  great  influence 
upon  the  early  church.  A  notable  Neoplatonist 
in  the  fourth  century  was  the  emperor  Julian, 
called  the  Apostate  because  he  abandoned  Chris- 
tianity for  Neoplatonism,  which  he  sought  to  make 
the  religion  of  the  state.  In  the  fifth  century  Hy- 
patia,  heroine  of  Kingsley's  work,  was  a  promi- 
nent representative.  Though  in  the  next  century 
Neoplatonism,  as  a  system,  faded  and  died,  its  influ- 
ence can  be  traced,  through  the  mysticism  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  down  to  the  present  time. 

150.  The  ante-Nicene  period  was  a  period  of 
rapid  growth,  not  simply  in  spite  of,  but  because  of, 
the  fact  that  they  were  centuries  of  persecution. 
"The  blood  of  the  martyrs  is  the  seed  of  the  church. " 
As  early  as  the  reign 'of  Tiberius,  besides  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  John  the  Baptist  by  Herod  Antipas  and 
of  Jesus,  under  Pilate,  we  have  the  stoning  of  Stephen 
(called  the  first  Christian  martyr)  and  the  martyr- 
dom of  James  under  Aprippa  I.  In  Suetonius,  a 
pagan  writer,  we  read  that  in  the  time  of  Claudius 
(see  Acts  18:2)  that  emperor  expelled  the  Jews  from 
Rome  because  they  were  continually  stirring  up 
tumult  under  the  instigation  of  one  Chrcstos.     This 


130  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

is  supposed  to  be  a  misspelling  of  the  name 
"Christ."  The  next  emperor,  Nero,  was  the  first 
of  the  emperors  to  persecute  the  Christians  as  Chris- 
tians. In  the  year  64  he  blamed  and  fiendishly  tor- 
tured Christians  for  a  nine-day  fire,  of  which  he 
himself  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  fiendish  cause. 
It  is  probable  that  both  Peter  and  Paul  were  put  to 
death  in  Rome  under  Nero. 

151.  In  Asia  Minor  Christians,  as  adherents  of 
a  forbidden  religion  and  as  those  who  had  what 
seemed  at  least  to  be  the  forbidden  secret  societies, 
were  being  put  to  death  by  Pliny,  the  governor  of 
Bithynia.  Finding  them  morally  and  politically 
blameless,  he  wrote  to  the  emperor  Trajan.  The 
result  was  an  edict  to  the  effect  that  Christians  were 
to  be  put  to  death  only  when,  after  having  been  for- 
mally accused,  they  refused  to  sacrifice  to  the  gods  and 
burn  incense  before  the  emperor's  statue.  Before 
the  time  of  Decius,  though  persecutions  had  become 
legal,  they  were  local.  With  him  began  determined 
and  general  efforts  to  suppress  the  religion  of  Christ. 
Many  of  the  Christians  lapsed  from  the  faith  by 
observing  heathen  rites  or  by  misrepresenting  their 
own  position.  They  were  called  "Lapsi."  Those 
who  publicly  confessed  Christ,  but  were  not  com- 
pelled to  become  martyrs,  were  called  "Confessors. " 
Because  of  the  number  of  these  and  of  the  many 
joyous  martyrs,  the  impossibility  of  uprooting 
Christianity    was    admitted.     Edicts    of    toleration 


Halj-Way  to  1517  A.  D.  131 

were  issued,  and  soon  an  emperor  himself  professed 
to  be  a  Christian.  Whatever  may  be  back  of  the 
story  of  the  cross  in  the  heavens,  the  words  "by  this 
sign  conquer,"  and  Christ's  confirmation  of  this  in 
a  dream,  the  victory  of  Constantine  over  his  rivals 
meant  a  great  temporal  advantage  to  Christianity 
which  became  the  religion  of  the  state. 

HERESIES,  CREEDS,  AND  PAPACY 

152.  Some  of  the  patristic  literature  was  written 
in  view  of  heresies  and  schisms.  The  earlier  here- 
sies were  mainly  the  result  of  religious  eclecticism — 
i.  e.,  the  combining  of  elements  from  different  reli- 
gious systems:  Jewish,  Greek,  Persian,  etc.  The 
judaizing  tendency  that  was  combated  in  Paul's  life 
and  writings  made  istelf  manifest  in  post-apostolic 
times  in  what  is  called  Ebionism.  This  was  the 
result  of  the  attempt  to  incorporate  into  Christianity 
the  narrow  particularism  of  Judaism.  In  a  num- 
ber of  New  Testament  references,  including  the 
reference  to  the  science,  or  rather  knowledge, 
("gnosis")  of  I  Tim.  6:20,  we  discern  at  least  the 
embryo  of  post-apostolic  Gnosticism.  This  in  its 
heretical  development  resulted  from  the  effort  to 
combine  Christianity  with  the  religious  and  philo- 
sophical ideas  of  paganism.  It  appeared  in  many 
forms — Marcionism,  Docetism,  Priscillianism,  etc. 
Marcionism  was  named  from  Marcion  of  Asia 
Minor.     While  Paul  contrasted  the  righteous  law 


132  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

with  the  gospel  of  grace,  and  Judaism  with  Chris- 
tianity, Marcion  put  them  in  opposition  and  did 
away  with  the  Old  Testament  altogether.  He  ad- 
mitted in  the  New  Testament  only  ten  epistles  and 
one  gospel.  Keeping  in  mind  such  scriptures  as 
I  John  4:2  and  II  John,  vs.  7,  it  is  interesting  to 
note  how  the  idea  that  Jesus  had  no  real  body  is  to 
be  found  in  these  Gnostic  systems,  and  how  it  led 
to  the  rise  of  a  sect  called  Docetists,  from  the  Greek 
word  for  appearance.  The  first  instance  of  the  capi- 
tal punishment  of  heretics  was  that  of  Priscillus  and 
some  of  his  followers,  385.  Priscillianism,  which 
arose  in  Spain,  was  a  Gnostic  development  of  Mon- 
tanism.  This  widespread  movement,  which  was 
originated  in  Asia  Minor  in  the  second  century, 
was  at  first  but  an  extravagant  reform  movement, 
but  later  was  treated  as  a  heresy  and  destroyed. 
The  place  that  Jewish  thought  took  in  Ebionism 
and  that  Greek  philosophy  took  in  Gnosticism,  Per- 
sian dualism  took  in  Manichaeism,  which  appeared 
in  the  third  century.  It  was  somewhat  influenced 
by  the  ethics  of  Buddhism,  and  sought,  and  was 
adapted  for,  a  more  popular  acceptance  than 
Gnosticism. 

153.  The  later  heresies  were  due  largely  to  dis- 
proportionate emphasis  of  views  that  otherwise 
would  have  been  considered  orthodox.  Origen  of 
Alexandria  had  taught  that  the  Son  in  some  way 
was  subordinate  to  the  Father.     He  also  taught  that 


HalJ-Way  to  1517  A.  D.  133 

the  Son  was  begotten,  not  once  for  all,  but  from 
eternity.  This,  called  "  eternal  generation,"  implies 
that  the  Son  always  had  a  separate  personality. 
In  318  Arius  of  Alexandria  was  accused  of  denying 
Christ's  divinity  because  he  taught  that  Jesus, 
though  first  and  greatest  of  all  created,  was  himself 
created.  The  eloquent  Athanasius,  also  of  Alexan- 
dria, was  later  his  greatest  opponent.  The  Athana- 
sians  denied  the  subordination,  but  held  to  the 
eternal  generation  of  the  Son.  The  Arians  did  not 
believe  in  the  eternal  generation  of  the  Son,  but  held 
to  his  subordination  to  the  Father.  The  Athana- 
sians  were  Homoousians — i.  e.,  they  believed  that 
the  Son  was  of  the  same  nature,  essence,  substance 
as  the  Father.  The  Arians  were  Heteroousians — 
i.  e.,  they  believed  he  had  a  different  nature  from 
the  Father's.  Semi-Arians  were  Homoiousians — 
i.  e.,  they  believed  he  had  a  like  nature  with  the 
Father's.  The  question  of  the  separate  personality 
and  nature  of  the  Holy  Spirit  was  brought  into  the 
discussion.  It  is  therefore  known  as  the  great  trini- 
tarian  controversy,  lasting  from  318  to  381.  The 
controversy  became  so  heated  that  Constantine 
called  the  Council  of  Nicaea  to  settle  it.  The  result 
of  that  council  was  a  victory  for  the  Homoousians, 
the  excommunication  of  Arius,  and  the  making  of 
the  Nicene  Creed.  Though  Arianism  in  different 
forms  again  gained  the  ascendency  in  some  coun- 
cils, the  victory  begun  at  Nicaea  was  completed — as 


134  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

far  as  councils  go — in  the  Council  of  Constantinople 
in  381. 

154.  In  the  Council  of  381  ApoUinaris,  an  oppo- 
nent of  Arianism,  was  himself  excluded  because  of 
his  view  concerning  the  relation  between  the  divine 
and  human  within  Christ  himself.  In  teaching  that 
the  Logos  took  the  place  of  a  human  mind  in  Christ, 
he  did  away  with  the  completeness  of  Christ's  human 
nature.  With  him  the  christological,  as  distinct  from 
the  trinitarian,  controversies  may  be  said  to  have 
begun.  The  Nestorians,  named  after  Nestorius, 
were  opposed  because  they  kept  the  divine  and 
human  so  distinct  as  to  make  of  Jesus  practically 
two  persons.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Monophy- 
sites,  as  the  word  suggests,  held  that  Jesus  had  but 
one  nature.  The  Monothelites,  as  the  word  sug- 
gests, held  that,  though  Jesus  had  two  natures,  he 
had  only  one  will. 

155.  While  in  the  speculative  East  the  christo- 
logical controversy  was  engaging  attention,  in  the 
practical  West  was  waged  a  great  controversy  con- 
cerning what  is  now  called  soteriology,  which,  as  the 
word  suggests,  treats  of  salvation.  Against  the  doc- 
trine that  man  is  absolutely  dependent  upon  divine 
grace,  a  doctrine  taught  by  Augustine,  and  against 
the  related  doctrine  of  predestination  or  foreordina- 
tion,  there  arose  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century, 
through  Pelagius,  a  British  monk,  what  is  called 


Halj-Way  to  1517  A.  D.  135 

Pelagianism.     In  its  emphasis  on  free  will  it  is  re- 
lated to  the  later  Arminianism. 

156.  Belonging  to  the  first  of  our  three  periods, 
and  occasioned  by  its  controversies,  are  the  four 
great  creeds — the  Nicene,  Chalcedon,  the  misnamed 
Apostles',  and  Athanasian.  The  creed  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nicaea,  325,  as  we  have  seen,  was  written 
in  view  of  the  trinitarian  controversy.  It  was  after- 
ward considerably  changed.  In  its  altered  form 
(often  called  the  Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan  Creed) 
it  was  adopted,  with  important  additions,  as  the 
creed  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  in  451.  The 
important  additions  thus  made  were  due  to  the 
christological  controversies.  Concerning  the  Apos- 
tles' Creed  there  is  a  legend  to  the  effect  that  at  the 
time  of  their  scattering  from  Jerusalem  the  twelve 
apostles  composed  it  as  a  universal  creed.  In  its 
present  form  it  is  later  than  that  of  Chalcedon,  but 
it  is  similar  to  a  confession  of  faith  earlier  than  the 
Nicene  Creed  and  connected,  it  would  seem,  with 
the  baptismal  injunction  of  Matt.  28:19.  The 
Athanasian  Creed  is  later  than  that  of  Chalcedon, 
and  a  long  time  after  the  death  of  Athanasius.  It 
represents  the  Augustinian  development  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity.  It  teaches  that  the  Spirit  is  not 
begotten,  and  implies  that  it  proceeds  from  both 
the  Father  and  the  Son  (John  15:16).  Over  a  cen- 
tury after  the  altered  Nicene  Creed  had  been  incor- 


136  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

porated  into  that  of  Chalcedon,  in  that  part  of  it 
which  said  that  the  Holy  Ghost  "proceedeth  from 
the  Father"  there  was  inserted  the  one  word  filioque 
("and  from  the  Son").  This  one  word  is  the  only 
doctrinal  reason,  or  excuse,  for  the  great  schism  be- 
tween the  Eastern  (Greek)  church  and  the  Western 
(Latin)  church. 

157,  With  the  growth  of  the  church  its  organiza- 
tion was  changed.  A  clear  distinction  was  made, 
not  simply  between  deacons  and  presbyters,  but  also 
between  the  presbyters  and  the  presiding  bishop, 
who,  if  in  a  capital  city,  was  a  metropolitan  bishop. 
Special  importance  was  given  to  the  apostolic  sees — 
i.  e.,  those  claimed  to  have  been  personally  founded 
by  the  apostles.  After  the  model  of  the  political 
divisions  of  the  empire,  though  not  in  exact  corre- 
spondence with  them,  the  bishoprics  of  Rome, 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  Constantinople,  and  Jerusalem 
became  patriarchates,  with  bishops  (called  patri- 
archs) having  jurisdiction  over  the  others  in  their 
territory.  In  time,  however,  Rome,  as  the  world- 
capital,  making  much  of  Matt.  18: 18,  19,  and  of  the 
belief  that  both  Peter  and  Paul  were  martyred  there, 
persistently  pushed  its  claim  to  being  Peter's  cathe- 
dra ("chair"),  from  which  its  bishop,  as  the  succes- 
sor of  Peter,  in  speaking  ex  cathedra — i.  e.,  officially 
— had  authority  over  all  the  rest.  This  is  called  the 
primacy  of  the  pope.  The  word  "pope"  (from  the 
Greek  for  "father"),  formerly  somewhat  generally 


Half-Way  to  7577  A.D.  137 

used  of  Christian  leaders,  became  restricted  in  its 
use.  It  has  been  officially  used  of  the  Roman 
bishop  since  Leo  I,  the  greatest  of  the  popes  before 
the  fall  of  Rome.  Between  the  fall  of  Rome  and  the 
close  of  our  first  period  the  pope  that  most  increased 
the  papal  power  was  Gregory  I,  590-604.  He  is 
also  called  Gregory  the  Great,  and,  as  we  have  seen, 
is  classed  as  the  last  and  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
Latin  fathers. 


CHAPTER  XI 

TO  1517 
INTRODUCTORY 

158.  Our  second  period  of  church  history  is  from 
the  death  of  John  of  Damascus  (about  the  middle 
of  the  eighth  century)  to  1517.  To  it  belongs  the 
division  into  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches, 
and  the  subsequent  fall  of  the  Eastern  Empire.  It 
is  a  period  of  conflict  between  popes  and  civil 
rulers;  a  period  of  feudalism,  Crusades,  Schoolmen, 
Renaissance,  discoveries,  and  reformers  before  the 
Reformation. 

159.  The  nominal  rule  of  the  house  of  Clovis, 
king  of  the  Franks,  was  brought  to  an  end  by  Pepin, 
son  of  Charles  Martel  and  father  of  Charlemagne. 
With  the  division  of  Charlemagne's  kingdom  among 
his  three  grandsons,  the  history  of  France,  Germany, 
and  Italy  as  separate  nations  may  be  said  to  have 
begun.  In  the  meantime  the  Anglo-Saxons  that  had 
taken  possession  of  Britain  united  their  seven  king- 
doms into  one  (827),  under  Egbert,  grandfather  of 
Alfred  the  Great. 

CIVIL  AND  RELIGIOUS  CONFLICTS 

160.  The  great  "dramatic  event  of  the  Middle 
Ages"  was  the  struggle  between  the  popes  and  the 

138 


To  1517  139 

civil  rulers.  On  Christmas  day,  800,  in  Rome  and 
by  the  Pope,  Charlemagne  was  crowned  as  the 
successor  of  the  Caesars,  with  the  understanding 
that,  while  he  was  to  be  the  temporal,  the  Pope  was 
to  be  the  spiritual,  head.  This  was  what  is  called 
the  "Holy  Roman  Empire,"  which  continued,  in 
name  at  least,  for  a  millennium.  This  dual  headship 
naturally  led  to  the  controversies  and  quarrels  that 
make  up  much  of  the  history  of  Europe  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  One  of  the  most  important  conflicts  was  con- 
cerning investitures — as  to  whom  belonged  the  right 
of  investing  the  bishop  with  his  bishopric,  which 
usually  meant  the  possession  of  large  estates.  This 
was  the  question  at  issue  between  Hildebrand  and 
Henry  IV  of  Germany,  who,  in  fasting,  wearing  sack- 
cloth, and  standing  barefooted  in  winter  in  order  to 
get  access  to  the  Pope,  made  his  famous  humiliation 
of  himself  at  Canossa.  With  the  freethinking 
Frederick  II  of  Germany  it  was  a  question  of  sover- 
eignty in  Naples.  In  France,  with  Philip  Augustus, 
it  was  concerning  marriage;  and  with  Philip  IV, 
concerning  the  taxation  of  church  property.  In 
England,  with  Henry  II,  it  was  concerning  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  court  over  the  clergy;  and  with 
John,  concerning  the  appointing  of  an  archbishop. 
This  last  resulted  in  a  complete  victory  for  the  able 
Pope  Innocent  III,  in  whose  time  the  temporal 
power  of  the  Pope  reached  its  highest  point. 

161.  Opposition  to  the  papal  claim  to  the  primacy 


I40  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

led,  in  our  second  period,  to  the  division  of  Christen- 
dom into  what  is  called  the  Eastern  and  Western 
churches.  The  most  scholarly  opponent  of  the 
papacy  was  Photius.  He  charged  the  Roman 
church  with  heresy  for  inserting  f^lioque  into  the 
creed  of  Chalcedon,  which  should  read  that  the 
Holy  Spirit  "proceedeth  from  the  Father"  without 
the  addition  of  filioque  ("and  from  the  Son"). 
The  Eastern  church  maintains  that,  though  the 
Spirit  was  sent  by  both  the  Father  and  the  Son  and 
comes  through  the  Son,  yet  the  eternal  procession 
of  the  Spirit  is  only  from  the  Father.  Since  schisms 
are  due  mainly  to  rivalries,  questions  of  polity, 
worship,  and  morality,  while  heresies  are  due  to 
doctrinal  differences  that  are  considered  important, 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Western  church  has 
never  declared  this  view  of  the  Eastern  church  as 
heretical.  In  fact,  while  Protestants  are  heretics, 
members  of  the  Greek  church  are  only  schismatics. 

162.  As  distinguished  from  the  clergy  of  the 
Roman  church,  those  of  the  Greek  church  marry 
and  do  not  shave.  There  is  also  some  difference 
concerning  fasting,  anointing,  etc.  The  division, 
however,  was  due  neither  to  doctrinal  nor  to  cere- 
monial differences,  save  as  these  were  occasions  for 
the  manifestation  of  the  real  cause.  The  real  cause 
was  that,  as  Caesar  could  brook  no  equal  and  Pom- 
pey  no  superior,  in  this  case  the  Roman  church 
was  Caesar  and  the  Greek,  Pompey.     Hildebrand 


To  1517  141 

(Gregory  VII),  who  was  pope  about  six  centuries 
after  the  fall  of  Rome,  and  who  raised  the  papacy  to 
a  higher  power  than  before,  decreed  that  the  title 
"pope"  should  be  used  only  of  the  Roman  bishop. 
It  was  just  before  he  became  pope,  however,  that 
the  Eastern  church  was  separated  from  the  Western 
by  mutual  excommunication  in  the  Church  of  St. 
Sophia.  Almost  four  centuries  later  this  church 
was  turned  into  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  when,  in 
1453,  Constantinople  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  by 
whom  it  is  still  held. 

163.  Feudalism  is  derived  from  the  word  "feud " — 
i.  e.,  fief,  or  fee,  which  was  generally  of  land.  For 
the  use  of  this  the  vassal,  or  liege,  pledged  himself  to 
be  the  "man"  {homo,  hence  "homage")  of  his  suze- 
rain, to  whom  he  would  render  military  and  other 
aid.  Often  this  suzerain,  besides  having  other 
vassals,  was  himself  one.  So  many  of  them  were 
from  among  the  clergy  that  it  is  said  one-third  of 
Germany  and  one-fifth  of  England  and  France  were 
controlled  by  the  church.  As  the  holders  of  small 
freehold  (allodial)  properties  were  unable  to  defend 
themselves  from  plunder,  the  tendency  was  for  them 
to  seek  protection  by  making  their  allodial  property 
feudal.  This  was  the  time  when  there  were  built, 
on  sites  most  easily  defended,  the  historic  castles 
which  tourists  visit  today. 

164. 

In  the  eleventh  century  Europe  wa5  thus  covered  with  a 


142  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

multitude  of  petty  sovereigns.  Below  the  body  of  rulers,  or 
the  holders  of  fiefs,  was  the  mass  of  the  people.  These  were 
the  serfs,  the  tillers  of  the  ground,  the  artisans,  or  the  servants, 
who  differed  from  slaves  only  in  being  attached  to  the  soil: 
they  could  not  be  bought  or  sold.  The  villains  were  a  grade 
above  the  serfs.  The  term  (from  villae)  originally  meant 
villagers.  They  paid  rent  for  the  land  which  the  proprietor 
allowed  them  to  till;  but  they  were  subjects,  like  the  serfs,  to 
the  will  of  the  suzerain;  and  the  constant  tendency  was  for 
them  to  sink  into  the  inferior  condition.     (Fisher.) 

Against  this  dark  background  it  is  no  wonder  that 
mediaeval  knighthood,  with  its  sense  of  honor,  its 
spirit  of  chivalry,  and  its  motto  or  devise,  Noblesse 
oblige  ("Nobility  obliges"),  has  attracted  so  much 
attention  in  both  poetry  and  prose.  The  introduc- 
tion of  the  use  of  gunpowder,  which  gave  the  armed 
and  armored  knight  but  little  advantage  over  the 
lowest  footsoldier  who  had  a  gun,  tended  to  bring 
them  to  the  same  level.  This,  however,  was  not 
until  after  the  Crusades,  which  were  fought  without 
powder. 

165.  The  increased  authority  of  the  Pope,  monk- 
ish zeal,  knighthood,  the  warlike  spirit  of  the  times, 
etc.,  combined,  made  possible  the  religious  wars 
against  the  heretical  Albigenses  of  southern  France, 
the  Mohammedan  Moors  that  had  invaded  Spain, 
and,  most  important,  the  Mohammedan  Turks  who 
were  in  possession  of  Jerusalem  itself.  Only  fifteen 
years  after  the  Hegira  it  had  been  taken  from  the 
Kagtern    Empire   by  the  Saracens  (nomad  Arabs) 


To  1517  143 

under  Caliph  Omar.  Before  leaving  he  commanded 
that  there  be  built,  on  the  site  of  the  temple,  what  is 
called  after  him  the  Mosque  of  Omar.  To  Moham- 
medans since  then,  as  to  Christians  since  the  third 
century,  and  to  Jews  since  long  before  the  time  of 
Christ,  Jerusalem  has  been  the  destination  of  sacred 
pilgrimages.  When  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks,  by  whom  the  Christian  pilgrims  were  ill- 
treated,  the  appeal  to  chivalry  for  the  protection  of 
the  pilgrims,  and  to  religion  for  the  rescuing  of  the 
holy  sepulcher  from  the  profanation  of  the  infidels, 
inflamed  Europe  to  a  half-dozen  or  more  crusades. 
As  suggested  by  the  word  itself,  and  because  the 
warriors  wore  on  their  right  shoulders  a  red  cross, 
the  Crusades  are  commonly  called  the  "wars  of  the 
cross." 

166.  They  resulted  in  only  about  a  century  of 
Christian  rule  for  Jerusalem.  Since  1187  (when  it 
was  retaken  by  the  Saracens  under  Saladin)  it  has 
been  under  Mohammedan  control.  The  Crusades, 
however,  had  other  and  very  important  results.  The 
Turkish  power  was  checked  at  the  important  forma- 
tive period  of  European  nationalities.  Before  the 
Crusades  had  come  to  an  end,  the  foundation  of  con- 
stitutional liberty  in  England  had  been  laid  in  the 
Magna  Charta  that  King  John  reluctantly  agreed  to, 
in  1215.  As  through  sale  and  death  the  number  of 
fiefs  decreased,  feudalism  declined.  Because  of  this, 
together  with  the  enhanced  importance  of  the  cities, 


144  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

freedom  increased,  and  there  was  a  development  of 
representative  government.  As  suzerain  and  serf 
fought  side  by  side  for  a  common  cause,  the  sym- 
pathy increased,  and  the  social  difference  decreased, 
between  them.  Both  had  their  horizon  broadened 
by  contact  with  other  peoples  in  other  lands.  Thus 
their  wants,  and  so  their  trade,  increased.  After 
the  Crusades  the  ocean  travel  that  the  mariner's 
compass  had  made  possible  increased  this  develop- 
ment of  the  people.  The  discovery  of  America  and 
of  the  passage  to  India  around  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  together  with  the  invention  of  printing,  all 
near  the  close  of  our  second  period,  helped  to  broaden 
men's  minds  and  to  give  them  different  ideals  than 
those  of  monasticism  and  of  scholasticism. 

THEOLOGY,  CULTURE,  AND  REFORM 

167.  While  monasticism  is  of  early  origin  and  con- 
tinues today,  the  Middle  Ages  was  the  period  of  its 
greatest  power.  Its  abbots,  or  heads  of  monasteries, 
equal  to  bishops  and  about  as  numerous,  and  its  vast 
armies  of  monks  who  were  pledged  to  obedience, 
celibacy,  and  poverty,  exerted  great  influence.  In 
the  thirteenth  century  arose  the  two  great  mendicant 
(or  begging)  orders — the  Franciscans,  founded  by 
Francis  of  Assisi,  and  the  Dominicans,  founded  by 
St.  Dominic.  Despite  its  excesses  and  shortcomings, 
mediaeval  monasticism  did  much  good,  charitable, 
and  missionary  work.     It  kept  learning  from  dying 


To  1517  145 

out  in  the  Western  church.  Out  of  the  schools  in 
connection  with  the  cathedrals  and  monasteries  were 
developed  some  famous  universities — among  them 
that  of  theology  in  Paris. 

168.  Our  second  period  of  church  history  includes 
all  the  Schoolmen,  who  began  in  the  eleventh  and 
ended  with  the  fifteenth  century.  Scholasticism 
sought  to  analyze  and  systematize  what  had  already 
been  given  by  the  Fathers,  councils,  and  popes.  In 
so  doing  it  often  made  such  trivial  distinctions  and 
raised  such  absurd  questions  that  frequently  since  it 
has  been  referred  to  with  a  jest.  Taking  on  faith 
these  teachings  of  the  church,  it  sought  to  give  them 
a  rational  basis.  In  doing  so  it  sometimes  had 
skeptical  tendencies.  Its  watchword  was:  "I  be- 
lieve that  I  may  know."  It  sought  to  unite  faith  and 
knowledge,  theology  and  philosophy.  It  reached 
its  highest  in  the  thirteenth  century,  in  which  arose 
the  two  schools — the  Thomists,  followers  of  the 
great  Dominican  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  the  Scotists, 
followers  of  the  great  Franciscan  Duns  Scotus. 
Dante's  great  work  is  based  upon  this  scholastic 
theology,  which  gave  to  Roman  Catholicism  a  large 
part  of  its  theology  today. 

169.  According  to  this,  as  developed  by  the  School- 
men, there  were  seven  sacraments — baptism,  con- 
firmation, Lord's  Supper  (Eucharist),  penance, 
extreme  unction,  marriage,  and  ordination  (holy 
orders).     These  were  looked  upon  as  being  in  them- 


146  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

selves  channels  of  grace,  the  imparting  of  which 
depended  upon  neither  the  faith  of  the  people  nor 
the  morality  of  the  officiating  priests.  On  these 
priests  there  was  conferred,  in  the  sacrament  of 
ordination,  an  indelible  character,  so  that  as  a  dis- 
tinct class  of  men  they  were  to  stand  between  God 
and  men.  In  keeping  with  the  idea  that  the  clergy- 
men were  not  merely  preachers,  teachers,  and 
pastors,  but  priests,  the  Supper  was  not  figuratively, 
but  actually,  a  sacrifice  offered  upon  the  altar  on 
behalf  of  the  people.  After  considerable  controversy 
it  was  finally  settled,  three  centuries  before  the 
Reformation,  that  the  blood  and  the  wine  actually 
became  the  body  and  blood  of  Jesus.  This  is  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  For  fear  some  of  the 
actual  blood  of  Jesus  be  spilt,  the  cup  was  not  given 
to  the  people,  who,  for  fear  the  smallest  particle  of  the 
body  would  be  lost,  were  given  wafers.  The  name 
of  the  wafer,  the  "host"  (from  the  Latin  word  for 
"sacrifice")  is  significant.  The  word  "mass"  is 
used  both  of  the  celebration  of  this  sacrifice  and  of 
the  whole  service  in  which  it  is  celebrated.  In  high 
mass,  as  distinguished  from  low,  the  service  is  sung. 
170.  To  marriage  was  ascribed  an  indelible  char- 
acter, so  that,  though  separation  was  permitted, 
divorce  even  for  adultery  was  not.  Baptism  also 
conferred  indelible  character.  It  was  never  to  be 
repeated.  It  was  a  saving  ordinance — the  doctrine 
of  baptismal  regeneration.     Infants  were  baptized 


To  1517  147 

to  save  them  from  the  effects  of  the  state  of  sin 
into  which  they  were  born — i.  e.,  from  original  sin. 
The  sacrament  of  confirmation  was  administered  by 
bishops  to  those  at  least  seven  years  old.  In  it  the 
sign  of  the  cross  was  made  upon  the  forehead  with 
consecrated  oil.  The  sacrament  of  penance  atoned 
for  actual  as  distinguished  from  original  sin.  It  had 
three  parts — sorrow  of  heart,  confession  to  the  priest, 
and  some  work  of  satisfaction  ("doing  penance"). 
Extreme  unction — i.  e.,  the  anointing  the  dying  with 
oil — was  the  final  purifying  of  whatever  remainders 
there  might  be  after  baptism  and  penance. 

171.  Mortal  sins — i.  e.,  deadly  sins — meant  eternal 
punishment  in  hell.  The  punishment  of  venial  sins 
— i.  e.,  of  minor  offenses — might  be  remitted  by 
penance.  Believers  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time 
after  death  were  sent  to  the  purifying  fires  of  purga- 
tory, to  be  prepared  for  eternal  happiness.  Prayers, 
and  especially  masses,  on  their  behalf  were  helpful 
in  getting  others  through  purgatory.  According  to 
the  doctrine  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  who  was  the  great- 
est of  the  Schoolmen,  Christ,  and  some  of  his  best 
followers,  had  done  more  than  they  were  strictly 
under  obligation  to  do — i.  e.,  they  had  done  works 
of  supererogation.  They  thus  had  laid  up  a  store  of 
merit  that  was  in  the  possession  of  the  church.  This 
treasure  could  be  used  to  make  the  satisfaction  neces- 
sary for  the  sins  of  others.  This  was  the  belief  back 
of  the  sale  of  indulgences,  according  to  which  freedom 


148  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

from  works  of  penance  here,  and  purgatorial  fires 
hereafter,  was  obtained  for  a  money  consideration — 
forgiveness  was  bought  with  money. 

172.  In  contrast  with  the  theological  studies  of 
the  Schoolmen,  and  in  response  to  a  growing  desire 
for  a  broader  culture  than  theirs,  came,  most  mark- 
edly in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  revival  of  letters 
called  the  Renaissance,  or  new-birth.  The  period 
between  the  barbarian  invasion  of  the  earlier  Greek 
and  Latin  culture  of  Europe  and  the  Renaissance  is 
called  the  Dark  Ages.  Before  the  Reformation  the 
dawn  of  a  new  day  of  culture  had  come.  The  fall 
of  Constantinople  resulted  in  an  inflow  of  Greek 
scholars  into  Italy.  There  they  were  cordially 
received  at  the  Vatican,  or  papal  residence  in  Rome, 
and  by  the  Medici,  the  distinguished  patrons  of 
learning  in  Florence.  The  result  was  a  great  revival 
of  the  study  of  Greek  language,  literature,  etc.  In 
contrast  with  the  theological  Schoolmen,  there  thus- 
arose  what  are  called  the  Humanists,  who  studied 
the  humanities — i.  e.,  studies  that  made  for  general 
culture,  and  distinguished  from  the  narrow,  scholas- 
tic study  of  divinity.  Sir  Thomas  More  of  England, 
the  author  of  the  famous  political  romance  Utopia, 
was  a  representative  of  Humanism.  The  greatest 
representative  was  the  brilliant  Erasmus.  In  his 
Praise  of  Folly,  and  frequently  elsewhere,  he  ridi- 
culed both  scholasticism  and  monasticism.     Human- 


To  1 517  149 

ism  not  only  helped  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
Reformation,  but  it  also  helped  in  the  work  itself. 

173.  Before  the  Reformation  there  were  many 
attempts  at  reform.  Noticeable  among  these  were 
the  attempts  of  the  Waldenses,  who,  despite  much 
persecution,  are  in  existence  today.  Against  a  her- 
etical sect  called  Albigenses  a  ruthless  crusade  was 
waged,  and  the  awful  tribunal  for  the  detection,  ex- 
amination, and  punishment  of  heretics  was  founded 
and  given  into  the  hands  of  the  Dominicans  in  1232. 
This  tribunal,  known  as  the  Inquisition,  played  an 
important  part  in  later  history  also.  In  England, 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  John  Wiclif,  called  the 
"morning  star"  of  the  Reformation,  sought  for 
evangelical  reform  and  was  influential  in  sending 
out  traveling  preachers  of  the  gospel.  His  greatest 
work  was  his  translation  of  the  Bible  from  the  Vul- 
gate into  English.  In  denying  that  the  bread  and 
wine  of  the  sacrament  were  actually  changed  into 
Christ's  body  and  blood,  he  repudiated  what  is  called 
transubstantiation.  Influenced  by  WicKf 's  writings, 
John  Huss  of  Bohemia  and  his  friend,  Jerome  of 
Prague,  sought  reform  and  suffered  martyrdom  a 
century  before  the  Reformation.  In  Italy,  almost 
at  the  close  of  the  century,  Savonarola,  an  enthusias- 
tic Dominican  reformer  who  assumed  the  role  of  a 
prophet,  suffered  martyrdom  as  a  heretic  and  a  false 
prophet. 


CHAPTER  XII 

SINCE  15 1 7 

LUTHER  AND  LUTHERANISM 

174.  Our  third  period  begins,  in  151 7,  with  the 
posting,  on  the  door  of  the  church  at  Wittenberg,  in 
Saxony,  Germany,  of  ninety-five  theses,  or  proposi- 
tions to  be  defended.  According  to  the  custom  of 
the  times,  this  meant  a  readiness  to  defend  them. 
They  were  concerning  indulgences.  The  money 
from  their  sale  was  to  be  used  for  the  building  of 
St.  Peter's  Church  at  Rome.  Tetzel,  who  was  sell- 
ing them  in  Saxony,  was  one  of  the  most  shameless 
traffickers  in  them.  They  were  the  occasion,  and 
one  of  the  causes,  of  the  Protestant  Reformation. 
Discoveries,  inventions,  the  revival  of  learning,  the 
meditations  of  the  Mystics,  the  work  of  preceding 
reformers,  and  the  growing  discontent  with  the 
management,  practices,  and  teachings  of  the  Roman 
Cathohc  church,  had  prepared  the  way.  The  fulness 
of  the  time  had  come.     Martin  Luther  appeared. 

175.  As  monk,  professor,  and  preacher,  the  study 
of  the  Bible,  especially  of  Paul,  on  the  doctrine  of 
justification  by  faith,  had  the  greatest  influence  upon 
him.  Next  in  importance  were  the  works  of  Augus- 
tine, and  next  to  these  a  book  of  the  Mystics  called 
German  Theology.     "The  just  shall  five  by  faith" 

150 


Since  151'/  151 

had  given  him  help  and  was  the  heart  of  his  message. 
At  first  he  had  no  thought  of  breaking  away  from 
the  Church  of  Rome.  In  the  discussion  that  fol- 
lowed his  attack  on  indulgences  and  the  teaching 
back  of  them,  he  denied  the  supreme  authority  of 
the  Pope  and  affirmed  that  the  efficacy  of  the  sacra- 
ments depended  upon  the  recipient's  attitude  of  soul. 
When  in  1521,  at  the  Diet  of  Worms,  he  was  asked 
to  retract  he  rephed:  "I  am  not  able  to  recall,  nor 
do  I  wish  to  recall,  anything;  for  it  is  neither  safe 
nor  honest  to  do  anything  against  conscience.  Here 
I  stand,  I  cannot  do  otherwise.  God  help  me. 
Amen."  Excommunicated  by  the  Pope  and  under 
the  ban  of  the  emperor,  by  order  of  his  friend,  the 
elector  of  Saxony,  he  was  protected  by  being  seized 
and  carried  oil  to  remain  for  a  time  in  Wartburg 
castle.  There  he  began  what  is  often  called  his 
greatest  work — the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
German. 

176.  Prominent  among  Luther's  helpers  was 
Philip  Melanchthon,  a  brilliant  young  Humanist. 
Between  Erasmus  and  Luther,  who  had  been  quite 
intimate,  a  difference  arose.  It  was  due  partly  to 
their  different  temperaments  and  partly  to  difference 
of  belief  concerning  the  will.  Another  Humanistic 
contemporary  of  Luther,  Ulrich  Zwingli,  who  also 
preached  against  indulgences,  was  the  leader  of  a 
parallel  reformation  in  Switzerland.  Luther  and 
he  differed  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper.     While 


152  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Luther  denied  the  Roman  Cathohc  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  the  actual  change  to  the  body 
and  blood  of  Jesus,  he  nevertheless  affirmed  that 
"in,  with,  and  under"  the  bread  and  wine  the  true 
body  and  blood  of  the  Lord  were  received.  To 
Zwingh  the  service  was  simply  a  memorial  service. 
The  broken  body  and  shed  blood  were  simply  sym- 
boHzed  in  the  bread  and  wine.  "This  is  my  body" 
meant,  "This  signifies  my  body."  Largely  because 
of  this  difference,  the  adherents  of  the  new  move- 
ment were  divided  into  Lutherans  and  Reformed. 

177.  Because  of  the  view  that  each  state  must 
have  uniformity  in  faith  and  worship,  civil  wars 
arose  between  Protestants  and  CathoHcs  to  deter- 
mine what  would  be  the  religion  of  each  state.  The 
history,  therefore,  may  be  considered  best  by  coun- 
tries. Let  us  consider  those  in  which  Lutheranism 
figured  prominently.  In  Scandinavia  Lutheranism 
became  the  state  religion,  first  in  Sweden,  and  then 
in  Denmark  and  Norway.  In  Germany  it  was 
defended  by  the  Smalcald  League  of  Protestant 
princes.  This  Smalcald  war  ended  in  a  peace  by 
which  each  state  was  to  be  Lutheran  or  CathoHc 
according  to  the  behef  of  its  ruler.  Theological 
controversies  followed  within  Lutheranism.  An 
insult  to  a  Catholic  procession  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  led  to  the  formation  of  an  evangelical 
union  of  a  number  of  Protestant  states,  as  opposed 
to  a   Catholic  league.     Between   these  began   the 


Since  1517  153 

Thirty  Years'  War,  into  which  other  countries  were 
drawn.  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  king  and  hero  of 
Sweden,  brought  success  to  the  Protestant  cause. 
After  him,  Cardinal  Richeheu,  the  eminent  French 
statesman,  figured  prominently.  According  to  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia,  which  ended  the  war  in  1648, 
the  state  rehgions  were  to  be  what  they  had  been  in 
1624 — chosen  as  the  normal  year.  In  this  peace 
not  only  CathoHcs  and  Lutherans,  but  the  Reformed 
( hurches  also,  were  given  civil  and  religious  freedom 
throughout  the  empire.  These  three  have  today  by 
much  the  largest  number  of  adherents. 

CALVINISM  ON  THE  CONTINENT 

178.  Passing  from  Germany  to  Switzerland,  we 
pass  from  Lutheranism  to  the  Reformed  church. 
Zwingh  himself  died  on  the  battlefield  in  conflict 
with  the  Roman  Cathohc  forces  of  Switzerland. 
Permanent  peace  was  not  reached  until  early  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  greatest  name  among  the 
Reformed  churches  was  John  Calvin.  Exiled  from 
France  because  of  his  faith,  he  came  to  Geneva  in 
Switzerland  a  few  years  after  the  death  of  Zwingh. 
In  influence  he  rivals  Luther.  His  masterpiece  in 
theology,  entitled  The  Institutes  of  the  Christian 
Religion,  together  with  his  commentaries,  have  left 
their  impress  on  the  confessions  of  faith  of  the 
Reformed  churches.  From  him  came,  in  distinction 
from  episcopacy  with  its  bishops,  etc.,  the  presby- 


154  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

terian  form  of  government.  In  this  the  ministers 
are  all  of  the  same  rank,  and  are  aided  by  elders 
elected  from  and  by  the  congregation.  Today  the 
Protestants  of  Switzerland  are  somewhat  in  the 
majority  and  belong  almost  entirely  to  the  National 
Reformed  church.  There  is  a  Free  Church,  but 
its  membership  is  small. 

179.  In  France,  where  the  influence  of  Calvin  was 
such  that  he  may  be  called  one  of  its  Protestant 
church  fathers,  a  series  of  civil  wars  broke  out  be- 
tween the  Catholics  and  the  Protestants  or  Hugue- 
nots. During  these  wars  occurred  the  treacherous 
massacre  of  the  Huguenots  on  the  night  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew. At  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  gave  them  the  free  exercise  of  their 
rehgion.  Near  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
in  which  they  were  suppressed  poHtically  by  Riche- 
lieu, the  edict  was  revoked.  The  result  was  the 
enriching  of  Protestant  countries  of  Europe  by  the 
intelligence  and  industry  of  the  Huguenot  refugees. 
Some  of  their  descendants  were  officers  in  the  victori- 
ous invasion  of  France  by  the  Germans  in  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  of  1870.  Because  those  who  remained 
in  France  met  in  out-of-the-way  places,  this  period 
is  that  of  "  the  church  of  the  desert." 

180.  Toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 
an  Edict  of  Toleration  was  issued.  This  was  just 
before  the  French  Revolution  (i 789-181 5).  At  the 
beginning    of    the    nineteenth    century    Napoleon 


Since  1517  155 

entered  into  a  concordat  (i.  e.,  a  treaty  between  the 
Pope  and  a  state  concerning  the  CathoHc  church), 
according  to  which,  while  the  Catholic  church  was 
recognized  as  being  the  religion  of  the  majority  and 
was  maintained  by  the  state,  its  property  was  owned 
by  the  state.  State  aid  was  given  to  Protestantism 
as  well.  At  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century 
a  bill  providing  for  the  separation  of  church  and 
state  became  law.  Its  aim  was  to  prevent  the 
scandals  of  ecclesiastical  and  poHtical  intrigues. 
According  to  this  law  of  1905,  the  cost  to  the  state 
of  the  support  of  the  clergy  was  through  the  death 
of  those  then  living  gradually  to  become  nothing.  It 
was  to  go  into  effect  December  11,  1906,  by  which 
time  every  religious  body  was  required  to  be  regis- 
tered as  an  "association  for  worship"  {association 
cultuelle).  The  Protestants,  who  are  in  a  small 
minority  as  compared  with  the  Roman  Catholics, 
complied.  Pope  Pius  X  refused  to  permit  Roman 
Catholics  to  register.  He  also  rejected  the  govern- 
ment's offer  to  give  its  recognition  of  Roman 
Catholic  worship  according  to  the  condition  in  an 
earlier  law  (1881).  On  the  situation  thus  produced 
a  Protestant  pastor  in  Paris,  Charles  Wagner,  author 
of  the  Simple  Life,  wrote  a  suggestively  entitled 
article:  "Rome  against  the  Republic."  In  it  he 
wrote : 

And  thus  a  system  most  massive  and  most  logical  has  led 
to  incoherence  through  the  exaggeration  of  authority.      In 


156  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

olden  times  a  council  would  have  been  called,  and  light  would 
have  arisen  out  of  discussion.  Today  there  is  one  individual 
who  thinks  for  all  the  rest.  And,  as  he  is  badly  informed,  he 
stands  in  the  position  of  a  blind  man  leading  those  who  see 
clearly  with  their  own  eyes. 

181.  The  influence  of  Calvin  was  also  strong  in 
the  Netherlands  or  Low  Countries.  In  the  conflict 
there  the  cruel  Duke  of  Alva  and  his  Bloody  Coun- 
cil put  many  thousands  of  Protestants  to  death. 
Through  Wilham  Prince  of  Orange  (WilHam  the 
Silent)  and  his  son,  the  seven  northern  and  Protes- 
tant provinces  in  time  became  freed  both  from  the 
yoke  of  Spain  and  from  that  of  the  Pope.  At  the 
close  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  in  1648,  the  Re- 
formed church  became  the  state  church.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  arose  a  contro- 
versy through  Professor  Arminius  and  his  followers 
who  emphasized  the  freedom  of  the  will  and  uni- 
versal grace — i.  e.,  Arminianism  as  against  Calvin- 
ism's view  of  election,  atonement,  will,  grace,  and 
final  perseverance.  These,  the  "five  points"  of 
Calvinism,  were  expressed  in  the  Canons  of  Dort — a 
synod  called  because  of  the  controversy.  In  the 
adjustment  following  the  French  Revolution  the 
seven  Protestant  provinces  were  united  with  the 
southern  provinces.  It  was  not  long,  however, 
before  there  was  a  division  into  Holland,  in  which 
Protestants  are  in  the  majority,  and  Belgium,  in 
which  Catholics  predominate,  but  in  which  there  is 
no  state  church. 


Since  jjiy  157 

ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND 

182.  The  influence  of  Calvin  was  deeply  felt  in 
Scotland,  where  through  John  Knox,  one  of  his  dis- 
ciples, the  Presbyterian  form  of  Protestantism  took 
such  deep  root.  Before  passing  to  that  interesting 
history,  it  will  be  better  to  treat  first  of  another  type 
of  Protestantism  distinct  from  both  Lutheranism  and 
Reformed — the  Church  of  England.  Because  he 
had,  as  against  Luther,  defended  the  seven  sacra- 
ments, Henry  VIII  of  England  had  won  from  the 
Pope  the  title  of  "Defender  of  the  Faith."  When, 
however,  the  Pope  did  not  give  his  consent  to  the 
divorce  and  subsequent  marriage  of  the  king,  the 
king  took  the  place  of  the  Pope  as  head  of  the  church 
in  England.  Otherwise  the  church  was  then  but 
httle  changed.  Henry  was  succeeded  by  liis  three 
children — Edward  VI,  Mary,  and  EHzabeth.  In 
the  reign  of  the  first,  Protestantism  made  rapid 
progress.  A  confession  of  faith  (forty-two  articles, 
which  in  Ehzabeth's  time  were  changed  to  the  cele- 
brated Thirty-nine  Articles)  and  the  Book  0}  Common 
Prayer  were  prepared.  In  the  reign  of  Mary  the 
persecution  of  Protestants  was  such  that  she  has  been 
called  ''Bloody  Mary."  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  when  in  power  the  Protestants  also 
persecuted. 

183.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  Protestantism  was 
restored  to  power.  Its  form  of  government  was 
episcopal  rather  than  presbyterian.     In  its  worship 


158  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

it  used  prescribed  forms — i.  e.,  it  was  liturgical  or 
ritual.  As  the  state  church  its  legislation  was  unfav- 
orable, not  only  to  the  Catholics,  but  also  to  those 
Protestants  whom  we  call  Puritans.  An  Act  of 
Supremacy  required  all  clergymen  to  assent  to  the 
supremacy  of  the  sovereign  in  the  church.  An  Act 
of  Uniformity  sought  to  force  upon  all  the  pre- 
scribed form  of  worship.  Those  Puritans  who,  with- 
out separating  from  the  estabhshed  church,  did  not 
conform  to  this  were  called  nonconformists — a  term 
applied  today  to  all  dissexiters.  Those  who  separated 
from  the  church  were  called  Independents.  Among 
these,  and  going  back  to  at  least  the  first  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  are  the  Congregationahsts  and 
Enghsh  Baptists.  In  the  middle  of  the  century  the 
Society  of  Friends  (Quakers)  originated  through  the 
preaching  of  George  Fox  concerning  the  "inner 
hght." 

184.  In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 
the  Stuarts  followed  the  Tudors  on  the  English 
throne.  James  VI  of  Scotland,  son  of  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots,  became  James  I  of  England  in  1603.  What 
is  called  the  Authorized  Version  is  also  often  called 
King  James'  Version,  because  translated  and  author- 
ized in  his  reign.  The  tracing  the  connections  (and 
the  comparing)  of  his  version  with  earlier  versions 
(Wichf's,  Tyndale's,  Coverdale's,  Genevan,  Bishops 
and  Rheims  and  Donai)  and  with  later  versions 
(Revised,  Twentieth  Century  Testament,  etc.)  is  an 


Since  1517  159 

interesting  study.  In  the  reign  of  his  son  and  succes- 
sor, Charles  I,  in  the  conflict  between  episcopacy 
and  Presbyterianism,  the  latter  gained  a  temporary 
ascendency  in  England,  and,  with  the  help  of  the 
Scotch,  framed  the  famous  Westminster  Confession 
that  was  adopted  in  Scotland. 

185.  The  reign  of  Charles,  who  was  beheaded, 
was  followed  by  the  Commonwealth  of  Cromwell. 
As  an  Independent  he  was  favorable  to  neither 
prelacy  nor  Presbyterianism.  After  Cromwell's 
death  these  united  to  bring  about  the  restoration  of 
the  Stuarts,  and  Charles  II,  son  of  Charles  I,  was 
crowned  king.  In  his  reign  Paradise  Lost  was 
written  by  the  blind  Puritan,  John  Milton,  and 
Pilgrini's  Progress  by  the  imprisoned  Puritan,  John 
Bunyan.  Ever  since  the  Restoration  the  Episcopal 
church  has  continued  to  be  the  established  church  of 
England.  Though  James  II,  like  his  brother  Charles 
II,  favored  Catholicism,  his  two  daughters — Mary, 
wife  of  William  of  Orange,  and  Anne — had  married 
Protestants.  The  birth  of  a  son  to  his  second  wife, 
who  was  a  Catholic,  occasioned  the  revolution  of 
1688,  when  William  and  Mary  came  to  the  throne 
and  gave  a  degree  of  liberty  to  the  dissenting  bodies. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  they  were 
followed  by  Anne. 

186.  In  the  first  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century 
Methodism  began  as  a  needed  revival  in  the  estab- 
lished church  of  England.     It  was  led  by  John  and 


i6o  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Charles  Wesley  and  George  Whitefield.  A  promi- 
nent feature  was  their  eloquent  field  preaching. 
A  difference  that  arose  between  the  Wesley's  and 
Whitefield  concerning  the  doctrine  of  predestination 
led  to  a  Calvinistic  and  an  Arminian  (Wesleyan) 
branch  of  the  movement.  The  separation  from  the 
established  church  of  England  did  not  come  until 
the  last  quarter  of  the  century,  after  Whitefield's 
death  and  before  the  death  of  the  Wesleys.  Of 
these,  John  had  the  executive  qualities  of  a  leader, 
while  Charles  is  famous  as  the  writer  of  hymns.  A 
very  evangelistic  Methodist  of  London,  William 
Booth,  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century 
(1878)  founded  the  Salvation  Army.  Its  theology 
was  that  of  Methodism.  Dressed  in  its  distinctive 
uniform,  it  aims  to  take  "the  world  for  God."  The 
red,  yellow,  and  blue  of  its  " blood-and-fire  flag" 
symbolize  Christ's  blood,  Holy  Ghost  fire,  and 
heart  purity.  It  spread  rapidly  and  has  done  a  great 
work,  especially  among  the  lowest  classes.  It  was 
in  London,  also,  that  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  began.  It  was  founded,  in  1844,  by 
a  clerk  named  George  Wilhams,  a  member  of  the 
estabHshed  church.  Fifty  years  later  he  was  made 
Sir  George  WiUiams.  Dying  in  1905,  he  hved  to 
see  the  organization  (commonly  called  the  Y.  M. 
C.  A.)  spread  throughout  the  civiHzed  world,  and 
"become  transformed  from  a  prayer-meeting  and 
missionary  enterprise  for  dry-goods  clerks  into  a 


Since  1517  161 

great  modern  lay  order,  masculine  in  character, 
plastic  in  its  constitution,  devoted  to  a  broad  and 
varied  development  of  young  men,  and  engaged  in 
many  enterprises  for  general  social  progress." 

187.  In  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
famous  "Tracts  for  the  Times"  appeared  at  Oxford. 
They  favored  the  teachings  of  Catholicism,  and  in 
the  ninetieth  tract,  which  was  the  last,  showed  how 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles  might  be  interpreted  in  a 
Roman  Catholic  sense.  Among  the  results  of  this 
Tractarian  movement  at  Oxford  was  the  passing  of  a 
number  of  Protestants  into  the  Catholic  church. 
Notable  among  these  were  John  Henry  Newman 
and  Henry  Edward  Manning,  both  of  whom  became 
cardinals.  Professor  Pusey,  one  of  the  leaders  of 
this  Anglo-Catholic  movement,  remained  to  be  the 
recognized  leader  of  what  is  called  the  High  Church 
party.  As,  since  the  middle  of  the  century,  the 
Romanizing  party  in  the  established  church  has  been 
zealously  introducing  Roman  Catholic  ritual,  etc., 
the  name  "  Tractarians  "  has  given  place  to  the  name 
of  "Ritualists." 

188.  We  trust  that  even  this  short  summary  of  the 
salient  events  in  the  history  of  the  established  church 
will  help  to  a  truer  understanding  of  its  relation,  on 
the  one  side,  to  Roman  Catholicism  and,  on  the 
other,  to  the  dissenters  now  commonly  called  "non- 
conformists." These  latter  in  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth    century    began    a   "passive    resistance" 


1 62  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

movement,  in  which  they  declined  to  pay  their 
school  taxes.  Suffering  the  consequences  in  the 
spoiling  of  their  goods  and  in  imprisonment,  they 
showed  their  disapproval  of  the  Educational  Act  of 
1902,  which,  they  felt,  gave  the  established  church 
an  unfair  advantage  with  the  children  of  England. 
With  the  understanding  that  this  condition  of  affairs 
was  to  be  improved,  the  Liberals  were  put  into 
power  with  a  large  majority.  A  bill  amending  the 
Act  of  1902  passed  the  Commons  in  May,  1906, 
with  nearly  200  majority.  Its  purpose,  however, 
was  so  changed  by  the  House  of  Lords  that  their 
amendments  were  rejected  by  the  Commons,  and 
the  bill  was  withdrawn.  In  the  feelings  thus  engen- 
dered, thoughts  of  mending  or  ending  the  House  of 
Lords  and  of  disestablishment  have  come  to  more 
frequent  and  more  distinct  expression. 

189.  Turning  now  to  Scotland,  we  find  that  from 
the  time  of  John  Knox  himself  its  history  has  been 
characterized  by  much  conflict.  In  the  sixteenth 
century  it  was  between  Protestants  and  Roman 
Catholics;  and  Protestantism  won.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  it  was  within  Protestantism,  between 
episcopacy  and  Presbyterianism;  and  Presbyterian- 
ism  won.  Then  it  was  within  Presbyterianism 
itself.  In  the  time  of  John  Knox,  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots  sought  to  restore  the  Roman  Catholic  religion. 
In  the  reign  of  her  son,  James  VI  (who  became 
James  I  of  England),  the  first  of  the  Scottish  cove- 
nants was  signed.     It  is  called  the  National  Covenant 


Since  1517  163 

in  which  the  king  and  people  pledged  themselves 
to  maintain  the  Reformed  religion  as  against  Roman 
Catholicism. 

190.  The  conflict  between  episcopacy  and  Presby- 
terianism  followed.  When  Charles  I  tried  to  intro- 
duce a  liturgy  into  Scotland,  Janet  Geddes,  in  Edin- 
burgh, flung  her  stool  at  the  reader.  The  National 
Covenant,  with  a  reference  to  innovations,  was  again 
signed  at  Grey  Friars'  Church  in  Edinburgh.  Later 
in  Charles'  reign  what  is  called  the  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant  was  prepared  and  signed,  even  by  the 
king  himself.  This  aimed  at  the  extirpation  of 
prelacy  as  well  as  of  popery.  It  was  prepared  during 
the  temporary  ascendency  of  Presbyterianism  in 
England.  This  was  overcome  by  Cromwell  the 
Independent.  After  the  Restoration  the  Covenant- 
ers suffered  bitter  persecution,  especially  at  the 
hands  of  John  Graham  (Claverhouse).  After  the 
revolution  of  1688  Presbyterianism  was  re-estab- 
lished, and  in  the  union  of  England  and  Scotland,  in 
the  time  of  Queen  Anne,  one  of  the  articles  of  union 
was  that  Presbyterianism  should  be  the  established 
church  of  Scotland. 

191.  In  this  very  reign,  however,  an  act  was 
passed  which  has  led  to  much  contention  and  division 
within  Presbyterianism.  It  was  the  Patronage  Act, 
according  to  which  whoever  was  patron  of  the  parish 
had  power  to  appoint  its  minister.  This  led  to  the 
forming  of  the  Associate  or  Secession  Church,  which 
itself  became  divided.     A  little  later,  through  this 


164  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

same  act,  the  Relief  Church  and,  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  Free  Church  went  out.  Meanwhile, 
however,  a  tide  had  set  in  toward  union.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  divisions  in 
the  Associate  Church  were  healed.  Near  the  middle 
of  the  century,  and  shortly  after  the  secession  of  the 
Free  Church,  the  Associate  and  Relief  secessions 
became  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland ; 
and  in  1900  these  and  the  Free  Church  became  the 
United  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  Two  dozen 
ministers  of  the  Free  Church  and  opposers  of  the 
higher  criticism,  etc.,  that  had  so  leavened  that 
church,  laid  claim,  on  ecclesiastical  and  theological 
grounds,  to  the  twenty  millions  worth  of  property 
of  the  Free  Church.  Appealed  to  the  House  of 
Lords,  the  law  lords  decided  in  favor  of  what  is 
commonly  called  the  "Wee  Frees,"  and  made  a 
most  trying  and  difficult  situation.  A  royal  com- 
mission was  appointed  and  recommended,  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  the  Legal  Free  Church  was  unable  to 
administer  adequately  the  whole  property,  that  a 
commission  be  appointed  with  power  to  divide  the 
property  so  as  to  give  to  the  Legal  Free  Church  all 
it  can  adequately  administer.  In  the  transference 
of  the  rest  preference  was  to  be  given  to  the  United 
Free  Church.  The  division  of  the  property  took 
place  before  the  close  of  1906.  "The  wholesale 
spohation  of  the  'heretics'  which  the  Wee  Frees 
began  after  their  legal  victory  in  1904  has  thus  been 
redressed  and  brought  to  an  end." 


CHAPTER  XIII 

SINCE  151 7 — Continued 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 

192.  Passing  from  the  Old  World  to  the  New,  we 
note  that  North  America  was  discovered  in  time  to 
become  a  refuge  from  the  persecutions  following 
the  Reformation.  Persecuted  in  England,  some  of 
the  Puritan  Independents  fled  to  Holland,  which 
they  left  for  America,  reaching  it  in  1620,  Their 
landing  at  Plymouth  is  often  referred  to  as  the  land- 
ing of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  All  the  other  events  of 
United  States  history  may  be  treated  as  coming 
before  or  after  two  great  events.  The  first  was  the 
War  of  Independence  (1776-83),  which  resulted  in 
separation  from  the  mother-country.  The  other  was 
the  Civil  War  (1861-65),  which  resulted  in  the 
preservation  of  the  union  of  the  states  and  in  the 
freedom  of  the  slaves. 

193.  In  the  period  before  the  War  of  Independ- 
ence Congregationalism  became  the  state  religion  of 
the  New  England  colonies.  These  persecuted  Puri- 
tans were  intolerant  to  other  Protestants  as  well  as  to 
Roman  Catholics.  Massachusetts  banished  Roger 
Williams  and  other  Baptists,  who  under  him  founded 
Rhode  Island.  Massachusetts  persecuted  the  Quak- 
ers, who  found  refuge  in  Rhode  Island.    Later  they 

165 


1 66  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

settled  in  Pennsylvania,  which  was  named  after  the 
Quaker  William  Penn,  to  whom  Charles  II  gave  it 
in  payment  of  a  debt.  In  different  colonies  where  it 
became  the  state  religion  the  Episcopal  church  perse- 
cuted the  dissenters.  Soon  after  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence the  states  in  which  the  Episcopal  church 
predominated  obtained  religious  liberty.  In  some 
places  where  Congregationalism  predominated  the 
connection  between  church  and  state  lasted  into  the 
nineteenth  century.  There  is  now  no  established 
church. 

194.  Among  the  prominent  names  before  the 
American  Revolution,  or  War  of  Independence,  is 
that  of  Jonathan  Edwards.  He  was  an  ardent 
adherent  of  Calvinism,  but  gave  it  a  germinal  modifi- 
cation that  was  afterward  greatly  developed.  This 
explains  the  fact  that,  while  he  is  sometimes  called 
the  founder  of  New  England  theology,  it  is  some- 
times referred  to  as  the  reaction  from  his  Calvinistic 
teachings.  Prominent  in  the  development  of  this 
theology  of  modified  Calvinism  are  the  names  of 
Hopkins,  Emmons,  and  Taylor.  Unitarianism  and 
Universalism  also  exerted  considerable  influence 
upon  it.  This  new  theology  or  divinity  played  an 
important  part  in  the  separation  of  Presbyterians, 
for  over  three  decades,  into  New  and  Old  Schools — 
divisions  that  were  united  again  a  few  years  after  the 
Civil  War.  The  hero  of  reunion  was  Henry  B. 
Smith.     A  contemporary,  Charles  Hodge,  of  Prince- 


Since  1517  167 

ton,  was  an  opponent  of  the  New  School.     Two  of 
his  sons  taught  in  Princeton. 

195.  By  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  (1861-65)  the 
new  divinity  was  in  the  ascendency  among  Congre- 
gationalists.  A  compromise  between  two  different 
degrees  of  modified  Calvinism  made  the  creed  of 
Andover  Seminary,  near  Boston.  It  represents 
what  is  called  "Andover  theology."  Oberlin,  in 
Ohio,  like  Andover,  was  both  Congregational  and 
New  School.  Charles  G.  D.  Finney,  the  great 
evangelist,  was  first  professor,  then  president,  in 
Oberlin.  Congregationalism  gave  to  the  world 
another  great  evangelist  in  D.  L.  Moody.  Among 
the  greatest  of  its  divines,  however,  was  Horace 
Bushnell  of  the  first  three  quarters  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  His  writings  have  exerted  great  influence 
on  the  decades  since.  His  treatment  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  and  his  moral-influence  theory  of  the 
atonement  were  strongly  questioned  in  his  day. 

196.  As  contributions  from  the  United  States  to 
the  number  of  rehgious  movements  of  the  world  we 
have  the  Disciples,  Mormons,  Adventists,  and  Chris- 
tian Scientists — all  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Early 
in  the  century,  and  largely  through  the  influence  of 
Alexander  Campbell,  arose  the  Disciples  of  Christ,  or 
Christians,  who  are  sometimes  called  CampbelHtes. 
They  made  much  of  Christian  union,  had  weekly 
communion,  and  practiced  the  immersion  of  penitent 
believers  as  in  some  way  connected  with  remission 


1 68  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

of  sins.  One  of  their  ministers,  Sidney  Rigdon, 
had  considerable  to  do  with  the  originating  of  the 
Mormon  church. 

197.  It  seems  that  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
Solomon  Spaulding,  in  support  of  his  view  that  the 
North  American  Indians  were  Israehtes,  wrote  a 
kind  of  romance,  but  failed  to  get  it  pubhshed. 
Through  Sidney  Rigdon  it  was  edited  so  as  to  be 
strongly  colored  with  his  views  concerning  immer- 
sion, etc.  As  thus  edited,  it  was  that  which  Joseph 
Smith  claimed  to  have  discovered  written  upon  gold 
plates.  This  was  in  the  hill  Culmorah,  near  Pal- 
myra, N.  Y.,  in  the  year  1823.  Twenty  years  later  he 
claimed  to  have  received  his  revelation  concerninsr 
polygamy.  The  following  year  he  was  murdered. 
This,  represented  by  his  followers  as  martyrdom, 
increased  the  influence  of  his  views.  Brigham 
Young,  the  ablest  of  the  "twelve  apostles,"  be- 
came the  leader.  They  "treked"  to  Utah  in  1847. 
Nearly  all  the  additions  to  their  ranks  have  been 
from  the  lowest  classes  of  Protestants.  The  influ- 
ence of  Rigdon  is  seen  in  their  practice  of  immer- 
sion and  in  their  hteral  interpretation  of  the  Bible, 
which  is  one  of  their  three  Specially  Sacred  books. 

198.  Other  literalists  in  the  treatment  of  Scrip- 
ture are  the  Plymouth  Brethren  and  the  Adventists. 
The  former  originated  in  the  Old  World,  where  they 
are  often  called  Darbyites,  from  John  Nelson  Darbv, 
a  leader  who  joined  them  in  1827.     They  are  mainly 


Since  i^iy  169 

Calvinistic  in  doctrine  and  have  no  ordained  minis- 
try. The  founder  of  the  Adventists  was  William 
Miller,  who  through  his  unscholarly  treatment  of 
Scripture  predicted  that  at  a  particular  time,  not 
many  years  after  his  prophecy,  the  Advent,  or  second 
coming,  of  Jesus  to  the  earth  would  take  place. 
He  lived  longer  than  the  date  he  fixed.  Among  its 
half-dozen  or  more  divisions  are  the  Seventh- Day 
Adventists,  who  keep  Saturday  as  the  sabbath. 
Their  common  belief  is  that  the  personal  coming  of 
Jesus  is  near.  It  is  not  to  be  preceded  by  the 
millennium. 

199.  The  movement  called  Christian  Science  was 
originated  in  1866  by  Mrs.  Eddy,  then  Mary  Baker 
Glover.  In  her  chief  work,  called  Science  and 
Health,  much  of  the  results  of  her  efforts  after  philo- 
sophic statements  can  scarcely  be  called  intelHgible. 
Christian  Science  as  a  science  claims  that  "mind  acts 
on  mind  to  dispel  the  illusion  of  sickness."  Back  of 
its  claim  to  be  "  Christian"  we  find  Christ  defined  as 
"a  divine  principle  not  person,"  and  Jesus  as  the 
"spiritual  idea  of  God  coming  to  material  behefs, 
rebuilding  and  destroying  them,  and  bringing  to 
light  man's  immortahty."  The  truth  in  Christian 
Science  is  the  acknowledged  power  of  mind  in  the 
matter  of  health. 

JESUITS  AND  CATHOLIC  DOCTRINE 

200.  The  Reformation  caused  a  counter-reforma- 
tion of  the  Roman  Cathohc  church.     Most  notable 


1 7©  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

in  this  are  the  Council  of  Trent  and  the  work  of  the 
Jesuits.  In  the  twenty-five  sessions  of  the  famous 
Council  of  Trent  (1545-63)  Roman  CathoUcism 
strongly  expressed  her  doctrinal  position  as  against 
Protestantism.  Taking  the  place  after  the  Refor- 
mation that  the  once  powerful  monastic  societies  had 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Society  of  Jesus,  founded  by 
Ignatius  Loyola  at  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, was  a  mighty  power  to  check,  and  often  to  turn 
back,  the  tide  of  Protestantism.  This  was  especially 
the  case  in  Austria,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary.  In 
understanding  Jesuitism  two  words  may  be  kept  in 
mind — "missions"  and  "methods."  The  missions 
were  of  three  kinds — home  missions  within  CathoHc 
jurisdiction,  foreign  missions,  and  missions  for  the 
conversion  of  Protestants. 

201.  Among  the  methods  used  were  probabilism, 
amphibology,  mental  reservation,  and  intentionalism. 
ProbabiUsm  means  that  in  what  is  doubtful  it  is  not 
necessary  to  take  the  way  that  has  the  more  evidence 
in  favor  of  its  being  right  (that  would  be  probabili- 
orism),  but  one  is  at  liberty  to  follow  his  own  wish  in 
a  way  with  less  evidence  in  its  favor.  Amphibology 
is  the  constructing  of  a  statement  so  that,  though 
the  separate  words  be  understood,  the  whole  meaning 
will  be  doubtful.  Mental  reservation  means  the 
adding  mentally  to  that  which  is  spoken  something 
that  might  make  the  whole  statement  appear  very 
different  from  that  spoken,  and  even  directly  opposed 


Since  ijiy  171 

to  it.     According  to  intentionalism  the  end  justifies 
the  means. 

202.  All  this,  however,  does  not  mean  that  among 
the  Jesuits  there  were  none  that  were  pious  and 
honest.  Their  methods  gave  them  power,  but 
caused  them  to  be  distrusted  and  hated,  with  the 
result  that  their  fortunes  were  checkered.  In  France 
Pascal's  famous  Provincial  Letters  exposed  the  im- 
morahty  of  their  casuistry.  They  were  opposed  to 
the  Jansenists.  These  were  followers  of  the  teachings 
of  Bishop  Jansen,  who  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
after  careful  study  of  Augustine,  sought  to  bring 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  back  of  the  Schoolmen 
to  the  rehgion  of  Augustine.  Jesuitism  as  opposed 
to  Gallicanism  was  Ultramontane.  Ultramontanism 
(a  word  meaning  "beyond  the  mountains" — i.e., 
beyond  the  Alps  where  Rome  was)  held  to  the  abso- 
lute control  of  the  Pope  over  the  whole  world. 
Gallicanism  (derived  from  the  word  for  Gaul, 
which  was  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps  from  Rome), 
as  opposed  to  Ultramontanism,  was  the  spirit  and 
principles  of  those  who,  though  at  the  expense  of 
the  Pope's  absolute  control  of  the  church,  would 
have  a  large  degree  of  freedom  and  power  given  to  the 
Catholic  church  in  France  as  the  national  church. 

203.  It  was  Jesuit  Ultramontanism  that  obtained 
from  the  Vatican  Council  of  1870  the  dogma  of  papal 
infallibihty — i.  e.,  when  he  speaks  ex  cathedra  in 
matters  of  doctrine  the  Pope  always  was  and  is 


1^2  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

infallible.  This  implied  the  infallibility  of  the  papal 
decree  of  1854  concerning  immaculate  conception. 
This,  it  should  be  remembered,  is  not  concerning 
the  belief  of  the  virgin-birth  of  Jesus,  as  many  Pro- 
testants think,  but  that  the  Virgin  Mary  herself  was 
free  from  original  sin.  An  important  explanation 
of  the  place  that  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus,  holds 
in  the  Cathohc  church  is  that,  as  a  result  of  the  Arian 
controversy,  the  humanity  of  Jesus  was  obscured  by 
the  emphatic  insistence  that  he  was  God.  The 
desire  for  someone  to  come  between  him  and  man 
was  satisfied  in  his  mother.  The  condemnation  of 
Nestorius  for  refusing  to  call  her  the  "mother  of 
God"  increased  the  worship  that  was  given  her. 
This  worship,  called  Mariolatry,  is  now  an  impor- 
tant part  of  the  Roman  Cathohc  rehgion.  Some  that 
were  opposed  to  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibihty 
were  called  Old  Catholics  because  holding  to  the 
behef  of  CathoHcism  with  the  exception  of  this  new 
teaching.  In  sympathy  with  these  Old  Catholics 
were  the  Jansenists. 

CREEDS,  SUNDAY  SCHOOLS,  AND  TEMPERANCE 

204.  As  distinguished  from  our  second  period,  our 
third,  Hke  the  first,  has  been  a  creed-making  period. 
To  the  first,  as  we  have  seen,  belong  four  great 
creeds.  In  the  second  the  one  noticeable  thing  is 
the  rejection,  by  the  Eastern  church,  of  the  one  word, 
filioque,  that  the  Western  church  had  inserted  into 


Since  1517  173 

the  Creed  of  Chalcedon.  The  Eastern  church  holds 
to  this  creed,  which,  we  have  seen,  is  the  enlarged 
Nicene  Creed  as  it  was  indorsed  at  Chalcedon  in 
451.  In  our  third  period  three  confessions,  including 
a  catechism,  have  been  added  to  the  doctrinal  state- 
ments of  the  Eastern  church.  To  this  period  also 
belongs,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  the  Triden- 
tine  Creed,  or  the  doctrine  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
This  is  based  on  the  scholastic  theology  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  includes  the  Nicene  Creed  with  the 
filoqiie  inserted.  Together  with  the  two  important 
later  dogmas  of  immaculate  conception  and  papal 
infalHbiUty,  it  therefore  gives  the  teaching  of  Roman 
Catholicism,  as  opposed  to  that  of  both  the  Eastern 
church  and  Protestanism.  Its  standard  catechism, 
with  its  questions  and  answers  for  the  theological 
training  of  the  children,  was  prepared  a  few  years 
after  the  Council  of  Trent. 

205.  The  creeds  of  Protestantism  are  many,  and 
originated  for  the  most  part  before  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  They  include  the  Lutheran 
Book  0}  Concord.  This  consists  of  the  Apostles', 
Nicene,  and  Athanasian  creeds,  and  a  number  of 
distinctly  Lutheran  confessions.  It  includes  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg  and  Luther's  two  catechisms 
for  the  training  of  the  children.  We  have  already 
referred  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Episcopal 
church  of  England,  and  to  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession— the  great  Presbyterian  symbol.     Its  longer 


174  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

and  its  shorter  catechisms  have  also  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  Presbyterianism. 

206.  The  historical  connection  between  the  later 
catechisms  and  the  catechetical  work  of  the  early 
church  (i.  e.,  its  work  of  training  converts  and  chil- 
dren) would  be  considered  in  a  full  discussion  of  the 
Sunday-school  idea.  This  idea  may  be  found 
before  the  time  of  Christ.  Church  schools  for  Bible 
study  may  be  found  in  different  Christian  ages  before 
1780.  It  is  in  that  year,  however,  that  the  modern 
Sunday  school  most  commonly  is  said  to  have  begun. 
Its  father  was  Robert  Raikes,  editor  of  a  paper  in 
Gloucester,  England.  While  some  religious  leaders 
opposed  it,  John  Wesley  and  others  threw  their 
energies  into  it.  It  has  had  such  rapid  growth  that 
its  pupils  now  are  to  be  numbered  by  the  tens  of 
milhons.  Advance  has  been  made  in  the  nature 
and  method  of  the  work  as  well  as  in  numbers. 
Efforts  have  been  directed  toward  making  the  study 
systematic  and  toward  putting  excellent  helps  within 
the  reach  of  all.  The  undenominational  Sunday 
School  Times  was  started  in  1859.  Dr.  Henry  Clay 
Trumbull  was  for  years  its  efficient  editor-in-chief. 
Another  name  prominent  in  sabbath-school  work  is 
that  of  Bishop  J.  H.  Vincent,  leader  of  the  movement 
called  Chautauqua  after  the  place  of  its  great  educat- 
ing assembhes.  Still  another  of  its  prominent  names 
is  that  of  B.  F.  Jacobs,  of  Chicago,  who  was  largely 
instrumental  in  bringing  about  the  systematic  study 


Since  ijiy  175 

of  the  Bible  in  uniform  lessons  The  great  need  is 
of  superintendents  and  teachers  with  such  common- 
sense,  training,  and  spiritual  insight  that  they  can 
and  will  take  the  three  important  steps  in  truest 
study  of  the  Bible  and  other  religious  hterature. 

207.  The  use  of  fermented  liquors  is  much  older 
than  that  of  distilled  hquors— rum,  brandy,  whiskey, 
gin,  etc.  Fermented  liquor  from  earliest  times  has 
been  used  for  its  taste  as  a  beverage  and  for  its 
effects  as  an  intoxicant.  The  use  of  distilled  Uquor 
can  be  traced  back  into  our  second  period  of  church 
history.  It  was  highly  praised  by  Raymond  Lull, 
the  missionary.  Had  he  but  foreseen  its  effects, 
how  different  his  words  would  have  been!  It  was 
not  until  our  modern  period  that  it  came  into  general 
use.  By  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
while  coffee,  tea,  cocoa,  etc.,  were  largely  taking  the 
place  of  wine  as  a  beverage,  distilled  liquor  was 
largely  taking  its  place  as  a  means  of  intoxication, 
which  was  thus  more  easily  within  the  reach  of  the 
poor,  who  could  "get  drunk  for  a  penny."  Though, 
earlier  in  the  century,  John  Wesley  and  others 
opposed  the  drinking  habits  of  the  times,  the  modern 
temperance  movement  may  be  said  to  have  begun 
in  the  last  quarter  of  the  century.  Prominent  in  the 
movement  at  that  time  were  the  influential  writings 
of  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  of  Philadelphia.  The  first 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  saw  the  formation 
of  a  number  of  temperance  societies,  of  which  one 


176  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

formed  in  Moreau,  N.  Y.,  in  1808  is  claimed  to  be 
the  first.  In  the  second  quarter  a  number  of  total- 
abstinence  societies  were  formed,  including  Father 
Matthew's,  originating  in  Cork,  the  Washingtonian 
in  Baltimore,  and  the  Sons  of  Temperance  in  New 
York.  The  third  quarter  saw  different  attempts  to 
bring  temperance  issues  into  pohtics.  It  also  saw 
the  formation  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union,  which  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  century 
pronounced  in  favor  of  woman's  suffrage  and 
prohibition.  To  this  last  quarter  of  the  century 
belongs  the  great  work  of  Miss  Frances  E.  Willard 
(1839-98)  in  connection  with  what  is  commonly 
called  the  W.  C.  T.  U. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS 

THE   FIRST  PERIOD 

208.  The  history  of  Christian  missions,  in  our 
first  period,  is  that  of  the  one  church;  in  our  second, 
that  of  its  two  divisions,  east  and  west;  and  in  our 
third,  that  of  the  three  divisions  of  which  Protestant- 
ism is  the  third.  In  our  first  period  the  New  Testa- 
ment itself  was  born  in  the  midst  of  missionary  work. 
As  the  result  of  this  the  number  of  Christians  at  the 
close  of  the  first  century  had  increased  from  hundreds 
to  hundreds  of  thousands.  They  were  to  be  found, 
especially  in  the  great  centers,  all  around  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  and  eastward.  In  the  next  two  cen- 
turies persecutions  only  fanned  and  fed  the  mission- 
ary fire,  so  that  it  spread  into  the  country  districts 
and  reached  lands  afar.  At  the  time  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nicaea  (325)  Christians  were  to  be  numbered 
by  the  millions,  and  were  increasing  rapidly  both 
east  and  west. 

209.  In  the  East,  however,  with  the  rise  and  spread 
of  Mohammedanism  in  the  seventh  century  the  tide 
was  turned,  so  that  before  the  close  of  our  first 
period  (the  middle  of  the  eighth  century)  the  early 
Christian  centers  in  Asia  and  Africa,  with  but  few 
exceptions,  were  completely  submerged.     Among  the 

177 


178  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

exceptions  were  the  Abyssinians  in  Africa,  and,  in 
Asia,  the  missionary  Nestorians.  This  interesting 
Christian  body,  originating  in  eastern  Syria  as  fol- 
lowers of  the  teaching  of  Nestorius  concerning  the 
two  natures  of  Christ,  did  most  noble  missionary 
work  in  central  and  western  Asia.  Before  the  close 
of  our  first  period  the  Persian  church  had  become 
Nestorian,  and  Nestorian  missions  had  extended 
into  India  and  even  into  China.  The  story  of  this 
early  entrance  of  the  gospel  into  China  is  told  in  the 
inscriptions  on  a  Chinese  monument,  on  which  the 
names  of  Nestorian  clergy  were  found  in  both  Syrian 
and   Chinese. 

210.  Largely  through  Christians  now  unknown 
Christianity  spread  westward  in  early  times,  reach- 
ing the  shores  of  Great  Britain  long  before  they  were 
invaded  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  heathen.  Besides  Paul 
and  others  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  notice- 
able among  the  missionaries  of  this  early  time  are 
Ulfilas,  of  the  fourth  century;  St.  Patrick,  of  the 
fifth;  Columba,  of  the  sixth;  Augustine  (or  Austin), 
dying  early  in  the  seventh;  and  Boniface,  of  the 
eighth.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  first  translator  of 
the  Bible  into  a  barbarian  tongue,  "the  noble- 
hearted  Ulfilas,"  in  his  great  missionary  work  in 
central  Europe  among  the  Goths  presented  an 
Arian  Christianity.  Over  a  century  later,  in  the 
year  496,  the  baptism  of  the  Frankish  ruler  Clovis 
into  Trinitarian  Christianity,  as  opposed  to  this,  was 


Christian  Missions  179 

one  of  the  secrets  of  the  success  of  the  Franks,  who 
thus  had  the  support  of  the  church.  This  baptism 
took  place  about  the  time  of  the  death  of  St.  Patrick, 
who,  as  the  great  apostle  to  Ireland,  began  a  most 
remarkable  missionary  movement.  One  of  his  best 
helpers,  especially  in  the  educational  part  of  his 
work,  was  a  woman  by  the  name  of  Bridget.  Of 
himself  he  wrote:  "I  was  reformed  by  the  Lord, 
and  he  has  fitted  me  for  being,  at  this  day,  what  was 
once  far  enough  from  me,  that  I  should  concern 
myself  or  take  trouble  for  the  salvation  of  others, 
when  I  used  not  to  think  even  of  my  own."  His 
call  to  the  Irish  suggests  Paul's  vision  of  the  man 
from  Macedonia. 

211.  One  of  the  great  representatives  of  St.  Pat- 
rick's missionary  movement  was  the  apostle  to 
Scotland,  Columba.  He  helped  make  the  isle  of 
lona  such  a  missionary  center  and  was,  like  Patrick, 
a  man  much  given  to  prayer.  They  both  repre- 
sented an  early  and  less  papal  type  of  Christianity 
than  that  which  was  introduced,  later,  by  Pope 
Gregory  I,  into  Anglo-Saxon  England.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  the  invasion  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  at  the  time  that  the  power  of  the  Roman 
Empire  was  waning  there  had  made  England  pagan 
again.  Gregory's  missionary,  Augustine  (or  Austin, 
and  to  be  distinguished  from  the  great  church 
father),  opposed  the  early  type  of  Christianity  of 
the  British  church,  and  in  time  it  was  practically 


i8o  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

overcome.  Boniface,  the  great  apostle  to  the  Ger- 
mans, was  also  a  zealous  representative  of  the  papal 
church.  The  account  of  his  unpunished  felling  of 
the  oak  sacred  to  Thor,  and  of  the  effects  of  this  upon 
the  pagans,  suggests  the  story  of  Elijah  before  the 
priests  of  Baal  and  the  cry  of  the  people,  "Jehovah 
he  is  God."  With  the  death  of  Boniface,  in  755, 
our  first  period  also  comes  to  an  end. 

THE   SECOND   PERIOD 

212.  In  our  second  period,  after  decades  of  con- 
flict, early  in  the  ninth  century  the  sword  of  Charle- 
magne had  enforced  Christianity  upon  the  Saxons. 
Later  in  the  century  the  great  apostle  to  the  Scandi- 
navians was  Ansgar,  who  was  to  some  extent  a 
medical  missionary.  His  missionary  experiences 
read  like  those  of  Paul.  In  the  same  century  the 
great  missionaries  to  the  Slavs  were  the  brothers 
Cyril  and  Methodius,  who  reduced  the  language  to 
writing  and  translated  the  Bible  into  it.  Among 
the  eastern  Slavs,  before  the  close  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, Vladimir  the  Great  of  Russia  was  baptized. 
As  with  the  Franks  at  the  baptism  of  Clovis,  this 
meant  that  his  people  adopted  Christianity.  This 
was  while  there  was  growing  friction  between 
Eastern  and  Western  Christendom,  but  before  the 
actual  division.  The  Russian  became  the  main  part 
of  the  eastern  church. 

213.  In  the  West,  beginning  at  the  close  of  the 


Christian  Missions  181 

eleventh  century,  two  centuries  of  the  Crusades  dis 
sipated  energy  that  might  have  been  more  wisely 
expended  in  missions.  These  were  left  mostly  to 
the  great  monastic  orders.  Francis  of  Assisi  himself 
made  a  single,  very  courageous  effort  for  the  salva- 
tion of  the  Saracens.  But  the  great  missionary  to 
the  Mohammedans  was  the  Spanish  nobleman  Ray- 
mond Lull,  the  martyr,  whose  missionary  ideas  were 
so  far  in  advance  of  his  time.  The  Mohammedans, 
taking  Constantinople  in  1453,  established  themselves 
in  Europe,  where  they  have  ever  since  remained. 
With  this  exception,  by  the  time  of  the  Reformation 
practically  all  Europe  was  Christian  as  distinct  from 
pagan.  On  the  other  hand,  the  losses  in  Asia  were 
so  increased  that  even  the  aggressive  Nestorians  were 
nearly  destroyed,  though  they  have  managed  to  exist 
until  the  present  time.  In  Africa,  too,  there  were  left 
but  few  Christian  oases.  Among  them  was  that  of 
the  Abyssinian  Christians,  who,  like  the  Nestorians, 
exist  "unto  this  day." 

THE  THIRD   PERIOD 

214.  Coming  to  our  third  period,  a  few  sentences 
will  suffice  for  the  missionary  work  of  one  of  the 
three  divisions  of  Christendom — that  of  the  Greek 
church.  It  is  largly  the  work  of  the  national  Church 
of  Russia.  Its  history,  therefore,  is  mainly  the  his- 
tory of  the  growth  of  the  Russian  empire  over  North- 
em  Asia  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.    Its  missionaries  have 


1 82  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

been  engaged  in  work  in  Europe,  in  Northern  Asia, 
in  Alaska,  and  even  in  Japan.  A  "  Society  for  Ortho- 
dox Missions"  was  organized  in  1870. 

215.  Protestantism  at  first  expended  so  much  en- 
ergy in  differentiating  itself  from  Catholicism,  and 
in  differentiating  between  the  many  sects  into  which 
it  divided  itself,  that  it  had  little  to  spare  for  missions. 
The  missionary  honors  for  the  first  part  of  the 
modern  period  belong  to  Roman  Catholicism.  The 
leading  place,  among  maritime  powers,  then  held  by 
Catholic  nations,  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  under- 
standing the  colonial  missions  of  this  period.  Fran- 
ciscans, Dominicans,  and  others  with  the  opening 
up  of  the  New  World  engaged  in  zealous,  heroic 
work  among  the  natives.  Before  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  Jesuitism  also  was  sending  out  its 
missionaries.  One  of  these,  Francis  Xavier,  who 
was  enthusiasm  itself,  spread  his  enthusiasm  in 
India,  and  even  into  Japan,  where  he  had  marked 
success.  The  missionaries  to  the  North  American 
Indians  manifested  much  heroism.  While  much  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  missionary  work  of  this  period 
was  superficial,  and  some  of  the  methods  were 
objectionable,  it  was  effective.  In  about  a  century 
after  the  Reformation,  by  the  year  1622  (an  impor- 
tant date  in  Roman  Catholic  missions),  Africa's 
coast  had  been  touched  in  spots.  North  America 
had  been  penetrated,  Asia  pierced  through  even  into 
Japan,  Europe   had   given  back  several   countries 


Christian  Missions  183 

from  Protestantism,  and  Central  and  South  America 
had  been  won. 

216.  In  1622  there  was  founded,  by  a  Jesuit  pope, 
a  society  for  the  spread  of  the  faith.  To  this,  com- 
monly called  the  Propaganda,  is  intrusted  the  whole 
mission  work  of  Roman  Catholicism  in  all  countries 
where  it  is  not  predominant.  Its  territory  is  divided 
into  five  parts — Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and 
Oceania.     H.  W.  Hulbert  wrote: 

One  cannot  help  but  admire  the  compact  organization, 
the  shrewd  foresight,  the  zeal  and  devotion,  of  the  individual 
missionaries,  the  economy  in  the  handling  of  men  and  means, 
and  the  breadth  of  view  taken  by  its  leaders.  The  wonder  is 
that  it  should  not  have  accomplished  more.  This  is  not  the 
place  in  which  to  point  out  many  and  glaring  defects  that  are 
obvious.  Wherever  today  Protestant  missions  are  found, 
there  are  the  Roman  Catholics  in  larger  numbers  and  with 
seemingly  larger  resources.  There  is  a  mutual  feeling  of 
distrust  and  active  opposition  all  along  the  line. 

217.  The  history  of  Protestant  missions  may  be 
divided  into  two  periods.  The  first  extends  from 
Luther  to  Carey — i.  e.,  from  early  in  the  sixteenth 
to  late  in  the  eighteenth  century.  In  explanation 
of  the  failure  of  both  Luther  and  Calvin  to  appre- 
ciate their  duty  to  foreign  missions,  he  whom  we 
have  just  quoted  wrote:  "The  smoke  of  the  battle 
about  them  obscured  the  distant  horizon."  The 
early  Protestant  missionary  work  was  largely  colo- 
nial. CoHgny,  the  great  leader  of  Protestantism 
in  France  in  the  sixteenth  century,  attempted  to 


1 84  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

found  Protestant  colonies,  first  in  Brazil  and  later  in 
Florida,  but  failed  in  both.  Catholic  supremacy  on 
the  sea  gave  way  to  that  of  Protestantism,  as  repre- 
sented by  English  and  Dutch.  Much  of  the  colonial 
missionary  work  of  the  Dutch  was  superficial,  even 
mechanical.  Though  far  from  fully  awake  to  the 
missionary  opportunities  in  her  growing  colonies, 
England  did  put  forth  some  effort  there.  The  colo- 
nial seal  of  Massachusetts  in  the  first  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century  represented  an  Indian  as  saying : 
''Come  over  and  help  us."  Among  the  greatest 
missionaries  to  the  Indians  were  John  Ehot,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  and,  in  the  eighteenth,  David 
Brainerd. 

218.  The  missionary  event  of  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century  was  the  beginning  of  the  marvel- 
ous work  of  the  Moravian  church.  With  its  motto, 
"Venture  in  faith,"  it  has  ever  since  been  to  the 
world  what  in  earher  times  the  Nestorians  were  to 
the  East.  This  remarkable  Christian  body  dates 
from  before  the  Reformation.  It  originated  in  Bo- 
hemia after  the  martyrdom  of  John  Huss.  While 
rejecting  Mariolatry  and  the  doctrine  of  purgatory, 
it  made  more  of  hfe  than  of  dogma.  After  a  very 
checkered  career,  which  included  much  persecu- 
tion, these  Bohemian  Brethren,  as  they  were  com- 
monly called,  took  a  new  lease  of  life  in  1722 — i.  e., 
just  a  century  after  the  founding  of  the  Propaganda. 
Under  the  protection  of  the  godly,  heathen-loving 
Count  Zinzendorf,  they  built  the  town  of  Hernuth 


Christian  Missions  185 

in  Moravia.  Hence  their  faith  is  sometimes  called 
Hernhuterism.  It  is  affirmed  that  by  the  middle  of 
the  century,  in  a  period  of  less  than  two  decades,  they 
had  estabhshed  more  missions  than  all  the  rest  of 
Protestantism  combined  had  estabhshed  in  two  cen- 
turies. Two  great  sayings  of  Zinzendorf  are  repre- 
sentative of  these  United  Brethren,  or  Moravian 
Brethren,  and  are  explanatory  of  their  missionary 
success:  "I  have  one  passion,  and  that  is  He — He 
alone;"  and  "Henceforth  that  place  is  my  home 
where  I  have  the  greatest  opportunity  of  laboring 
for  my  Savior. "  Prominent  among  the  missionary 
names  outside  this  body  is  that  of  Frederic  Christian 
Schwartz,  whose  heroic  work  in  India  for  most  of 
the  second  half  of  the  century  continued  long  enough 
to  overlap  that  of  Carey  himself. 

219.  In  1792  WiUiam  Carey,  who  had  been  a 
cobbler,  preached  his  famous  missionary  sermon 
from  Isa.  54:2,  3,  with  the  memorable  divisions, 
"Expect  great  things  from  God,"  and  "Attempt 
great  things  for  God. "  With  the  organizing  in  that 
same  year  of  the  Baptist  Society,  with  Andrew  Ful- 
ler as  its  secretary  and  Carey  as  its  first  missionary, 
the  era  of  effective  Protestant  missionary  societies 
had  come.  Among  the  great  missionaries  since  may 
be  mentioned:  Henry  Martyn  (1781-1812),  Robert 
Morrison  (1782-1833),  Adoniram  Judson  (1788- 
1849),  John  WilHams  (i 796-1839),  Robert  Moffat 
(1795-1883),  and  David  Livingstone  (1813-73). 


1 86  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

220.  Henry  Martyn  was  the  devout,  loving,  com- 
passionate Church  of  England  missionary  in  India 
and  Persia.  He  translated  the  Bible  into  Persian,  and 
wrote  concerning  India :  "I  lay  in  tears  interceding 
for  the  unfortunate  natives  of  this  country,  thinking 
within  myself  that  the  most  despicable  Sudra  of 
India  was  of  as  much  value  in  the  sight  of  God  as 
the  king  of  Great  Britain. "  Robert  Morrison,  sent 
out  by  the  London  Missionary  Society,  was  the 
scholarly  layer  of  foundations  for  Protestant  missions 
in  China. 

221.  Adoniram  Judson's  Burmese  Bible  and  other 
labors  place  him  in  the  front  rank  of  missionaries. 
In  1810  with  a  few  other  students  he  joined  in  an 
appeal  that  led  to  the  formation  of  the  American 
Board.  One  of  these  students,  Samuel  J.  Mills, 
was  one  of  the  five  who  made  the  memorable  conse- 
cration at  WilHamstown  in  the  famous  haystack 
meeting,  the  centennial  of  which  was  celebrated  in 
the  fall  of  1906.  His  words  make  a  good  mission- 
ary motto:  "We  can  do  it  if  we  will."  Theo- 
dore Parker  declared  that,  if  the  modern  missionary 
movement  had  done  no  more  than  produce  one 
Adoniram  Judson,  it  were  worth  it  all.  John  Wil- 
liams, the  martyred  apostle  to  the  cannibal  South 
Sea  Islands,  had  such  marvelous  success  that  an 
Enghsh  bishop  on  reading  his  hfe  remarked:  "I 
have  now  been  reading  the  twenty-ninth  chapter  of 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles." 


Christian  Missions  187 

222.  Robert  Moflfat,  missionary  in  South  Africa, 
by  his  Christian  courage  and  love  tamed  the  fierce 
chief  Africaner  into  the  loyal  Christian  who  said  in 
dying:  "My  former  life  is  stained  with  blood,  but 
the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  cleanseth  from  all  sin." 
Moffat,  like  Carey,  Morrison,  Judson,  and  others, 
waited  seven  years  before  the  beginning  of  the  harvest 
of  souls.  His  daughter,  Mary,  married  the  great 
missionary  explorer  of  Africa,  Livingstone,  whose 
motto  was:  "Trust  in  God  and  work  hard."  In 
187 1  Henry  M.  Stanley  was  successful  in  the  errand 
on  which  he  had  been  sent  by  the  New  York  Herald. 
He  found  Livingstone  in  the  heart  of  Africa.  There, 
less  than  two  years  later,  the  great  missionary  was 
found  in  the  attitude  of  prayer — dead.  He  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

223.  Less  than  a  decade  after  this  death  occurred 
the  first  baptism  in  Uganda,  that  marvelous  mission 
in  the  heart  of  Africa.  From  its  instigation  through 
Stanley's  letter,  "Here,  gentlemen,  is  your  oppor- 
tunity— embrace  it,"  its  record  is  one  of  the  most 
thrilling  in  the  annals  of  missions.  Prominent 
among  the  names  in  connection  with  it  is  that  of  the 
Scotch  engineer,  Alexander  Mackay.  Because  of 
"his  heroic  exploits"  Lord  Rosebery  called  him  "the 
Christian  Bayard  whose  reputation  will  always  be 
dear."  He,  like  the  French  knight,  was  "without 
fear  and  without  reproach."  And  what  shall  I  more 
say  ?    For  the  time  would  fail  me  to  tell  of  John  G. 


1 88  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Paton  in  the  New  Hebrides,  and  many  others,  still 
with  us,  or  but  recently  passed  to  the  growing  number 
of  noble  missionaries  who  have  gone  before. 
Through  faith  they  subdued  kingdoms  and  wrought 
righteousness,  because  in  the  Macedonian  "Come" 
they  heard  the  great  commission,  "  Go." 

FIELDS  AND  STATISTICS 

224.  There  is  time  further  for  only  a  few  general 
words  concerning  the  most  important  missionary 
fields.  Morrison  did  not  commence  work  among 
China's  four  hundred  millions  until  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century.  Today  there  are  thousands  of 
missionaries  and  over  a  hundred  thousand  communi- 
cants. At  the  beginning  of  this  century  several 
hundred  foreigners  and  thousands  of  native  Chris- 
tians were  murdered,  and  much  missionary  property 
destroyed,  by  the  uprising  of  the  anti-foreign  Boxers. 
The  missionary  work  speedily  recovered.  All  Chi- 
nese cities  are  now  open  to  Christian  influence,  for 
the  introduction  of  which  modern  facilities  have 
rapidly  increased.  The  use  of  opium  has  been  a 
great  curse  to  the  people,  and  a  stain  upon  the 
reputation  of  the  British  through  whom  the  awful 
trade  has  been  continued. 

Never  before  in  a  single  year  have  so  many  official  acts 
favored  Christianity  as  during  1906.  Two  viceroys  have 
either  ordered  or  advised  the  use  of  the  Christian  Scriptures 
in  the  government  schools  and  among  officials.     The  most 


Christian  Missions  189 

influential  viceroy  in  the  empire  has  written  a  book  in  which 
he  commends  Christianity.' 

A  national  awakening  has  begun  that  will  make  for 
a  rapid  progress  hke  that  in  Japan. 

225.  Japan,  with  its  half  a  hundred  millions, 
since  its  seclusion  was  broken  by  Commodore  Perry, 
of  the  United  States,  in  1854,  has  astonished  the 
world,  with  the  rapidity  of  its  progress.  From  the 
standpoint  of  war  this  was  shown  in  its  victory  over 
China  and,  still  more  markedly,  in  its  successful 
conflict  with  Russia.  Though  the  adherents  of 
Christianity  are  still  comparatively  very  few,  their 
influence  in  different  departments  of  national  life  is 
altogether  out  of  proportion  to  their  numbers.  Of 
great  significance  is  the  way  in  which  Japanese 
influence  is  permeating  China  and  Korea.  The 
latter,  which  has  come  under  the  protection  and 
tutelage  of  Japan,  was  opened  up  by  medical  mis- 
sions as  late  as  1884.  Today,  however,  Korean 
Christians  are  numbered  by  the  thousands.  The 
war  between  Russia  and  Japan  opened  up  a  wider 
missionary  way  to  about  one-half  of  the  pagans  of 
the  world.  In  eastern  Asia  the  great  competition 
(to  use  a  mild  word)  is  that  between  an  awakened, 
aggressive  missionary  Buddhism,  with  its  over- 
whelming numbers,  and  Christianity,  with  its  few 
representatives.  It  is  said  that  in  1904  the  repairs 
of  a  Buddhist  temple  in  Japan  cost  more  than  was 

I  Missionary  Review,  January,  1907. 


I  go  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

spent  all  that  year  in  Christian  missions  in  Japan. 
The  problem  of  native  churches  becoming  decreas- 
ingly  dependent  upon  the  superintendence  of  foreign 
missionaries  is  being  worked  out  in  Japan.  The 
Japanese  characteristically  are  adapting  as  well  as 
adopting  Christianity,  of  which  they  are  developing 
an  eastern,  as  distinguished  from  a  western,  type. 

226.  Of  India's  population  (about  one-fifth  of  that 
of  the  world  and  crowded  into  about  one-thirtieth 
of  the  earth's  area)  Hinduism  claims  two-thirds. 
In  the  way  of  the  christianizing  of  these  stands  the 
great  barrier  of  caste.  This  keeps  the  people 
separated  into  innumerable  classes,  with  the  Brah- 
mans,  or  priest  caste,  at  the  head.  The  restriction 
of  marriage  and  work  to  the  caste  into  which  the 
Hindu  is  born,  and  the  treatment  of  child-widows, 
many  of  them  not  in  their  teens,  yea  scarcely  more 
than  babes,  have  made  for  the  physical,  intellectual, 
and  moral  degeneracy  of  the  people.  The  great 
gain  of  Christianity  has  been  from  the  lowest  of  the 
four  great  divisions  of  castes  (Sudra),  and  from  the 
pariahs  or  outcasts,  who  nevertheless  are  divided 
into  many  castes  of  their  own.  Many  of  even  the 
Brahmans  are,  at  great  risk,  openly  becoming  Chris- 
tians; and  many  more,  who  are  not,  are  vying  with 
Christians  in  their  tributes  to  Christ;  but  they  are 
saying  to  the  Christians:  "You  are  not  like  your 
Christ."  Mohammedanism  has  a  large  part  of  all 
its  adherents  in  India,  of  whose  population  it  has 


Christian  Missions  191 

about  one-fifth.  Like  Buddhism  and  Christianity, 
Mohammedanism  is  a  missionary  religion.  The 
great  conflict  between  its  crescent  and  the  cross  is  on, 
not  only  in  India  and  westward  into  Europe,  but 
also,  and  mainly,  in  Africa.  In  keeping  with  the 
growing  feeling  of  the  natives  of  India  that  they 
have  not  the  place  they  should  have  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  country,  is  a  promising  missionary 
movement  that  is  laying  special  emphasis  upon  the 
work  of  native  Christians.  Foreign  missionaries 
have  not  their  access  to  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the 
other  natives  and,  compared  with  India's  many 
millions,  are  very  few.  In  the  work  of  these  native 
Christians,  therefore,  lies  the  hope  of  India's  evan- 
gehzation. 

227.  In  Africa  among  the  greatest  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  Christian  missions  are  the  intoxicating 
liquors  from  Christian  nations  and  the  polygamous, 
slave-trading  Mohammedans.  It  now  scarcely  seems 
credible  that  it  was  not  until  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and  after  a  parliamentary  fight  of 
decades,  that  a  law  went  into  force  for  the  abolition 
of  slavery  in  the  British  Empire;  and  that  it  was  not 
until  the  second  half  of  the  century  that  a  similar 
law  was  issued  in  the  United  States  of  America. 
Most  of  the  interior  of  Africa  was  unmapped  and 
unknown  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Today  there  are  still  large  stretches  of 
country,  both  north  and  south  of  the  Equator,  in 


192  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

which  the  gospel  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  had 
yet  a  chance  to  be  heard.  However,  a  splendid 
beginning  has  been  made ;  and  the  "  dark  continent," 
from  coast  to  coast — east  and  west  and  north  and 
south — has  its  means  of  civilized  travel  and  its  lines 
of  missionary  lights.  A  suggestive  comparison  for  a 
missionary  article  that  would  awaken  sorrow  and 
indignation,  admiration  and  joy,  is  that  between  the 
atrocities  of  a  professedly  Christian  civilization  in 
the  immense  Congo  Free  State  and  the  benefits  of  a 
truly  Christian  civilization  in  the  neighboring  Ugan- 
da. Africa  and  Asia  (the  two  largest  of  the  con- 
tinents) as  compared  with  the  others  are  non- 
Christian.  South  and  Central  America  are  mainly 
papal  and  pagan.  Thrilling  are  the  annals  and 
marvelous  the  success  of  missionary  work  on  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific. 

228.  Omitting  for  the  moment  the  statistics  of  the 
non-Protestant — i.  e.,  larger — part  of  Christendom, 
and  estimating  the  non-Christian  population  of 
the  world  in  round  numbers  at  a  billion,  how  pitifully 
small  seems  the  statistics  of  the  Protestant  missionary 
societies  of  the  world  in  their  mission  to  non-Christian 
and  non-Protestant  peoples!  As  given  for  1906  in 
the  Missionary  Review  oj  the  World,  we  find  over  a 
million  pupils  in  the  schools  of  the  missions,  ap- 
proaching to  two  million  communicants,  over  four 
million  adherents,  an  income  of  twenty-five  mil- 
lion dollars,  one-seventh  of  which  came  from  the  for- 


Christian  Missions  193 

eign  field  itself.  In  this  there  was  a  force  of  over  one 
hundred  thousand  missionary  workers,  five-sixths  of 
whom  were  natives.  Estimating  Catholic  missions, 
though  of  a  different  kind,  as  having  numbers  some- 
what larger  than  these,  and  the  Greek  church  with 
figures  very  much  less,  surely  foreign  missions  are 
still  a  babe  in  swaddling-clothes  and  lying  in  a 
manger.  But  in  that  babe  what  divinity,  what 
power !  Let  us  be  wise  and  bring  to  this  babe  gold, 
frankincense,  and  myrrh.  Inspiring  are  many  of 
the  records  of  foreign  missions,  but  so  much  is  yet 
to  be  done!  Let  those  of  us  who  are  playing  at 
foreign  missions  get  to  work. 


CHAPTER  XV 

LITERATURE,  ARTS,  AND  SCIENCE 

LITERATURE 

229.  As  the  expression  of  its  religious  life,  Chris- 
tianity has  an  increasingly  large  literature  of  which 
the  New  Testament  is  a  very  small  part.  Its  prose 
includes  the  works  of  Fathers,  Schoolmen,  reformers, 
philosophers,  theologians,  historians,  and  preachers. 
To  mention  but  one  devotional  book  for  each  period, 
we  have  Augustine's  Conjessions  in  the  first,  the 
Imitation  0}  Christ  by  Thomas  a  Kempis  in  the 
second,  and  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress  in  the  third. 
In  the  first  period  Origen,  Augustine,  Ambrose, 
Chrysostom,  and  others  of  the  Fathers  were  able 
preachers.  In  addition  to  the  reformers  before  the 
Reformation,  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  and  John  Tauler 
were  among  the  eloquent  preachers  of  the  second 
period.  To  our  third  period,  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury belonged  the  reformers;  in  the  seventeenth,  in 
England,  Taylor,  Baxter,  and  Bunyan  and,  in 
France,  Bossuet  and  Fenelon;  in  the  eighteenth, 
the  Wesleys,  Whitefield,  and  Jonathan  Edwards; 
and  in  the  nineteenth,  Beecher,  Brooks,  Chalmers, 
Spurgeon,  MacLaren,  and  others. 

230.  The  poetry  of  Christian  literature  includes 
innumerable  hymns.     The  English-speaking  world 

194 


Literature,  Arts,  and  Science  195 

is  deeply  indebted  to  the  High  Churchman  Dr. 
Neale  for  his  beautiful  rendering  of  the  early  hymns. 
The  best  Greek  hymns,  according  to  him,  belong  to 
the  hundred  years  beginning  with  the  second  quarter 
of  the  eighth  century,  and  so  beginning  in  our  second 
period.  To  that  hundred  years  belongs  the  original 
of  his  exquisite  hymn  "  Art  thou  weary  ?  "  From  the 
first  part  of  a  very  long  Latin  poem  of  Bernard  of 
Cluny,  Dr.  Neale  has  given  us  those  beautiful  and 
popular  hymns  concerning  heaven — "Jerusalem  the 
golden,"  etc.  Contemporary  with  Bernard  of  Cluny 
was  the  great  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  the  irresistible 
preacher  of  the  Second  Crusade.  From  a  Latin 
poem  by  him  we  have  been  given  some  beautiful 
hymns  addressed  to  Jesus.  To  the  next  century 
belongs  the  hymn  rendered  by  Walter  Scott  "That 
day  of  wrath,"  etc.  A  little  later  the  hymn  concern- 
ing "Mary  at  the  cross  her  station  keeping"  {Stahat 
mater)  was  composed.  In  our  third  period  the 
Reformation  owed  much  to  Luther's  hymns,  espe- 
cially to  his  "A  mighty  fortress  is  our  God."  Next 
to  Luther  in  German  hymnody  is  Paul  Gerhardt, 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  two  great  names 
in  English  hymnody  are  Watts,  practically  its  creator, 
and  his  successor,  Charles  Wesley,  both  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  To  this  century  also  belong  the 
hymns  of  Philip  Doddridge,  and  the  Olney  hymns 
of  John  Newton,  of  Olney,  and  his  friend,  the  melan- 
choly William  Cowper,  who  was  a  contemporary  of 


ig6  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Burns,  the  peasant  poet  of  Scotland.  In  the  nine- 
teenth century  Roman  Catholicism  was  represented 
by  Faber,  the  English  church  by  Keble,  and  non- 
conformity by  Bonar. 

231.  Its  hymns  are  only  a  part  of  the  poetry  of 
Christian  literature.  Prominent  among  its  great 
works  must  be  placed  the  Divine  Comedy  of  Dante, 
who  may  be  placed  with  Homer,  Shakespeare,  and 
Goethe  as  one  of  the  four  greatest  poets  of  the  world. 
Akin  to  Dante's  great  work,  in  our  second  period,  is 
that  of  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  and  Regained,  in  our 
third.  To  the  last  part  of  the  eighteenth  and  to  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  belong  Words- 
worth and  Coleridge.  These,  with  the  less  gifted 
Southey,  belong  to  what  is  called  the  "Lake  school." 
They  were  contemporaries  of  Byron  and  Scott.  Of 
these,  Byron  was  the  greater  poet,  but  his  poetry, 
to  say  the  least,  was  not  very  religious.  Scott  ex- 
celled as  a  novelist.  In  fact,  the  study  of  all  fiction 
may  be  wisely  divided  into  two  periods  by  the  works 
of  Scott.  Stopford  A.  Brooke  begins  his  comparison 
of  Browning  and  Tennyson  with  the  words:  "Par- 
nassus, Apollo's  mount,  has  two  peaks,  and  on  these, 
for  sixty  years,  from  1830  to  1890,  two  poets  sat 
till  their  right  to  these  lofty  peaks  became  unchal- 
lenged." While  Browning  represented  robust  faith, 
and  Tennyson  the  doubts  of  the  age  as  well  as  its 
faith,  Matthew  Arnold  represented  its  unbelief  as 
well  as  its  doubt  and  faith. 


Literature,  Arts,  and  Science  197 

232.  The  influence  of  the  Bible  upon  subsequent 
Christian  literature  has  been  altogether  out  of  pro- 
portion to  its  size.  How  great  its  inspiration  in 
English  literature,  especially  the  best !  Its  influence 
upon  Milton  was  such  that  the  presentation  of  his 
religious  views  have  been  so  identified  with  the  Bible 
that  sometimes,  where  they  differ  from  or  supple- 
ment it,  they  are  viewed  as  if  taken  from  the  Bible 
itself.  Intelligently  to  read  Shakespeare  and  Tenny- 
son implies  a  knowledge  of  the  Bible  that  many  col- 
lege students  do  not  possess.  The  pages  of  Macaulay 
and  of  Ruskin  are  brightened  by  it,  and  the  eloquence 
of  Gladstone,  Webster,  Burke,  and  Bright  is  heigh- 
tened by  it.  Dickens  replied  to  Walter  Savage 
Landor  that  he  got  the  style  that  Landor  praised 
"from  the  New  Testament  to  be  sure."  That  he 
got  more  than  his  style  from  the  Bible  his  writings 
frequently  show.  Its  influence  upon  Thackeray 
was  also  great.  To  Scott  it  was  The  Book.  Through 
the  whole  range  of  English  which  it  has  practically 
made,  its  influence  is  reflected,  not  only  in  definite 
references,  but  also  in  the  making  and  the  molding 
of  the  greatest  thoughts;  and  as  with  English  lit- 
erature, so  with  those  of  other  tongues. 

ART 

233.  After  Alexander's  time  Greek  art  declined. 
Then  military  supremacy  passed  to  Rome,  whose 
art  was  inferior  to  that  of  Greece.     The  excavation 


iq8  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  buried  by  the  eruption 
of  Vesuvius,  shows  that  much  of  the  Roman  art  was 
immoral.  Because  of  this,  together  with  its  service 
to  idolatry,  it  was  opposed  by  the  early  church.  As 
the  early  period  of  church  history  was  largely  a  period 
of  persecution,  there  was  not  much  occasion  for 
church-building.  To  this  time,  however,  belong  the 
catacombs  and  their  symbols. 

234.  The  catacombs  are  associated  with  the  times 
of  persecution  as  the  hiding-places  of  the  living  as 
well  as  the  burial-places  of  the  dead,  including  some 
of  the  martyrs.  The  most  important  from  the 
standpoint  of  Christian  art  and  history  are  those  just 
outside  of  Rome.  There  are  over  fifty  of  these,  in 
which  millions  were  buried  between  the  beginning 
of  the  second  century  and  the  beginning  of  the  fifth. 
They  consist  mainly  of  many  miles  of  galleries,  cut 
out  of  the  white  tufa  stone,  which  is  easily  worked. 
Into  the  sides  of  these  galleries  the  bodies  were 
placed,  and  the  opening  was  closed  with  a  stone 
slab  bearing  an  inscription  and  a  Christian  symbol. 
One  of  these  was  the  fish,  because  the  letters  of  the 
Greek  work  for  "fish"  were  the  first  letters  of  the 
Greek  words  for  "Jesus  Christ,  God's  Son,  Savior." 
Upon  the  walls  and  roofs  were  symbols  and  scenes. 
The  so-called  "catacomb  churches,"  which  were  in 
connection  with  the  galleries,  the  light,  and  the  air, 
were  too  small  to  accommodate  many. 

235.  When    the    period    of    persecution    passed, 


Literature,  Arts,  and  Science  199 

occasion  arose  for  the  building  of  many  churches. 
In  the  time  of  Constantine  they  were  built  in  two 
distinct  styles — the  Byzantine  and  basilican.  Of 
these  the  Byzantine,  in  which  the  cupola  or  dome  is 
prominent,  has  flourished  mainly  in  the  East.  In 
Constantinople  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia  (now  a 
Mohammedan  mosque)  was  built  in  this  style. 
Because  of  the  grandeur  of  its  dome  and  the  richness 
of  its  material  it  is  said  that  the  emperor  Justinian, 
exclaimed  at  its  completion:  "I  have  surpassed  thee, 
O  Solomon ! "  A  notable  example  of  a  later  devel- 
opment of  this  style  is  St.  Marks  in  Venice.  The 
basilican  style  arose  in  imitation  of  the  Roman 
basilica.  This  was  a  rectangular  building,  with  a 
platform  at  the  farther  end  and  with  the  central 
part  or  nave  separated  from  the  side  aisles  by  rows 
of  columns.  This  flourished  mainly  in  the  West, 
where  in  the  eleventh  century  it  was  developed  into 
the  Romanesque. 

236.  In  the  Romanesque,  in  place  of  a  flat  ceiling, 
the  round  arch  abounds.  It  is  commonly  viewed 
as  but  a  transition  to  the  Gothic  style.  In  this  the 
pointed  arch  and  spire,  which  are  so  prominent, 
suggest,  not  simply  an  aspiration,  but  a  striving  for 
the  highest.  A  great  example  is  the  Cathedral  of 
Cologne  in  Germany.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
in  the  development  of  both  the  Byzantine  and  the 
basilican  styles  increasing  prominence  was  given  to 
the  form  of  the  cross  in  the  ground-plan  of  the  church 


200  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

— the  Greek  cross  in  the  Byzantine  and  the  longer 
Latin  cross  in  the  basilican.  By  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  while  the  Byzantine  still  ruled  in  the 
East,  in  the  West  the  Gothic  had  given  place  to  the 
Renaissance,  in  which  the  round  arch  of  the  Roman- 
esque, the  cupola  of  the  Byzantine,  and  the  Greek 
columns  are  found.  Its  chief  example  is  St.  Peter's 
at  Rome.  For  the  building  of  this  was  used  the 
money  from  that  sale  of  indulgences  that  occasioned 
the  Reformation. 

237.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  how  many  great 
artists  were  alive  in  the  year  1517.  To  mention  but 
six  of  the  greatest  artists  the  world  has  ever  seen,  we 
have  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michael  Angelo,  Raffael, 
Titian,  and  Correggio  among  the  Italians,  and 
Diirer  among  the  Germans.  In  painting,  and  still 
more  in  sculpture,  after  the  golden  age  of  Angelo 
and  Raffael  the  arts  declined.  Among  the  names 
worthy  of  prominent  mention,  however,  are  Murillo, 
the  Spanish  painter  of  the  seventeenth  century ;  Ho- 
garth, the  English  painter  of  the  eighteenth;  and  in 
the  nineteenth,  among  painters.  Turner,  Holman 
Hunt,  and  Tissot,  and  among  sculptors,  Thorwald- 
sen  and  Rauch. 

238.  The  extreme  attitude  toward  art  taken  by 
Puritanic  Protestantism  is  seen  in  Macaulay's 
description  of  the  Puritan  regime  in  England : 

The  Parliament  resolved  that  all  pictures  in  the  royal  col- 
lection which  contained  representations  of  Jesus  or  of  the 


Literature,  Arts,  and  Science  201 

Virgin  Mother  should  be  burned.  Sculpture  fared  as  ill  as 
painting.  Nymphs  and  Graces,  the  work  of  Ionian  chisels, 
were  delivered  over  to  Puritan  stone-masons  to  be  made 
decent. 

Though  having  as  elaborate  a  ceremonial  worship 
as  Roman  Catholicism  the  Greek  church  does  not 
make  as  much  use  of  the  fine  arts  in  its  worship. 
The  use  of  sacred  images  ("icons")  in  worship  led 
to  over  a  century  of  bitter  strife  and  persecution. 
Those  who  opposed  it  are  called  "iconoclasts." 
The  result  was  that  in  the  Eastern  church,  since 
the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  while  the  worship 
of  raised  images  has  been  forbidden,  flat  images 
are  used  in  worship. 

239.  The  source  and  center  of  Christian  art  is 
Christ.  In  fresco,  mosaic,  sculpture,  and  painting, 
however  affected  by  the  artists'  nationality  and  time, 
there  is  recognizable  one  "supreme  face"  through- 
out the  centuries  of  Christian  art.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  especially  he  was  represented  as  a  judge.  A 
common  representation  of  him  is  as  the  suffering 
Savior.  In  striking  contrast  to  the  realism  of  the 
painted  crucifix  is  the  modern  painting,whcre,  instead 
of  a  portrayal  of  his  physical  suffering,  there  is 
between  the  crosses  of  the  thieves  but  an  indescrib- 
ably beautiful  light.  It  is  for  us  all  to  get  the  truest 
vision  that  the  eyes  of  our  souls  can  see,  and  not  to 
be  disobedient  to  the  heavenly  vision. 

240.  The  prominent  names  in  the  development 


202  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

of  church  music  before  1517  are  Ambrose  and 
Gregory  the  Great.  Shortly  after  that  date,  when 
there  was  danger  of  music  being  banished  from  the 
Roman  Catholic  church,  the  genius  of  Palestrina 
saved  the  day.  "By  his  songs  he  has  conquered 
us,"  said  a  certain  cardinal  concerning  Luther, 
because  he  had  made  much  of  sacred  song.  The 
Wesleys,  Moody  and  Sankey,  and  later  evangelists, 
have  followed  his  example.  By  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  secular  opera  and  sacred 
oratorio  had  come  into  existence.  Among  the 
masters  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries 
were  Bach,  Handel,  Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven, 
Mendelssohn,  and  Wagner.  Of  these.  Bach,  Handel, 
Haydn,  and  Mendelssohn  are  famous  chiefly  because 
of  their  religious  music.  In  the  present  century  the 
effort  of  Pope  Pius  X  for  the  reformation  of  church 
music  is  another  incident  in  a  conflict  manifest  from 
as  early  as  the  days  of  Ambrose — a  conflict  between 
the  two  tendencies  toward,  and  away  from,  the 
secularizing  of  the  music  of  the  church. 

SCIENCE 

241.  Though  in  our  second  period  Roger  Bacon,  a 
physical  scientist  of  the  thirteenth  century,  suffered 
imprisonment  for  writing  against  the  monks  as 
standing  in  the  way  of  progress,  it  was  not  until  early 
in  our  third  period  that  the  conflict  between  progress- 
ing science  and  the  prevailing  theology  began  in 


Literature,  Arts,  and  Science  203 

earnest.  The  conflict  was  largely  over  the  accounts 
of  creation.  Roger  Bacon's  position  itself  was  at 
times  near  that  of  astrology  and  alchemy,  the  fore- 
runners of  astronomy  and  chemistry.  Early  in  our 
third  period  a  priest  by  the  name  of  Copernicus 
discovered  the  error  of  the  Ptolemaic  idea  that  the 
heavens  went  around  the  earth.  This  idea  goes  back 
to  early  Christian  times.  In  the  seventeenth  century 
Galileo  was  opposed  at  Rome  for  advocating  the 
Copernican  view  that  the  earth  went  around  the  sun. 
At  first,  under  pressure,  he  retracted  his  teaching, 
but  afterward  died  in  prison  "for  thinking  in  astron- 
omy otherwise  than  the  Franciscan  and  Dominican 
license  thought." 

242.  In  the  meantime  an  English  contemporary 
of  Galileo,  Francis  Bacon,  whose  Essays  have  been 
so  popular,  was  preparing  the  way  for  the  progress  of 
science  by  emphasizing  the  importance  of  the  induc- 
tive method.  Born  in  England  the  year  of  Galileo's 
death  (1642),  Sir  Isaac  Newton  breathed  a  freer 
atmosphere  in  which  to  make  known  his  great  dis- 
covery— the  law  of  gravitation  which  was  applicable 
to  the  whole  universe.  He  lived  into  the  eighteenth 
century,  in  which  the  French  naturalist  Buffon  was 
criticized  for  being  unorthodox  in  his  work  on 
natural  history.  The  result  was  that  he  wrote,  as 
given  by  Lyell:  "I  abandon  everything  in  my  book 
respecting  the  formation  of  the  earth  and,  generally, 
all  which  may  be  contrary  to  the  narrative  of  Moses." 


204  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Meanwhile  the  conclusions  of  geology  were  coming 
into  increased  conflict  with  the  account  of  creation  in 
Genesis.  Then,  with  Charles  Darwin's  Origin  of 
Species  (1859),  perhaps  the  most  influential  book  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  arose  the  great  controversy 
concerning  evolution.  While  Newton  discovered 
a  great  law  of  universal  space,  Darwin  discovered 
a  great  law  for  all  time — the  law  of  development. 
His  great  work  was  to  collect  facts  that  showed  how 
higher  species  were  evolved  from  lower  ones.  One 
of  the  ablest  advocates  of  Darwin's  view  was  the 
literary  biologist,  Thomas  Henry  Huxley  (1825-95), 
who  stood  for  freedom  in  scientific  thought.  As 
most  of  the  other  members  of  a  certain  society  were 
"ists,"  for  himself,  who  sought  neither  to  affirm  nor 
deny  what  was  beyond  knowledge,  he  invented  the 
title  of  "agnostic."  He  wrote  concerning  it.  "It 
came  into  my  head  as  suggestively  antithetic  to  the 
'gnostic'  of  church  history,  who  professed  to  know 
so  much  about  the  very  things  of  which  I  was 
ignorant." 

243.  The  idea  of  development  has  influenced  study 
in  different  departments  of  knowledge.  Upon  it  is 
based  the  new  psychology.  This  is  functional  as  well 
as  structural;  i.  e.,  it  not  simply  tries  to  analyze  the 
mental  life,  but  it  seeks  the  origin  and  the  function 
of  the  different  phases  of  consciousness.  In  this  it  is 
evolutionary.  It  is  thus  closely  related  to  what  today 
is  called  the  new  theology,  according  to  which  religion 


Literature,  Arts,  and  Science  205 

is  a  growth  in  consciousness,  and  the  different  ideas 
concerning  God  have  been,  and  are,  more  or  less 
valuable  working  hypotheses.  They  influence  con- 
duct, and  like  hypotheses  in  natural  science,  have 
been,  and  are,  changed  by  results. 

244.  The  chapters  in  Genesis  with  which  physical 
science  came  into  conflict  are  the  chapters  with  which 
the  modern  controversy  concerning  the  Old  Testa- 
ment began.  In  1680,  Simon,  a  French  priest,  called 
attention  to  the  two  accounts  of  creation  and  of  the 
flood.  Considerably  less  than  a  century  later  it  was 
discovered  that  these  accounts  of  creation  had  each  a 
different  name  for  deity.  Just  a  century  later,  1780, 
Eichhorn,  a  German,  discovered  that  there  were 
other  noticeable  differences  in  the  language  used. 
Investigations  were  extended  to  include,  not  only  the 
Pentateuch,  but  Joshua  also.  In  the  first  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century  De  Wette  pointed  out  the  pecu- 
liarity of  the  teaching  and  style  of  Deuteronomy. 
Before  Darwin's  great  work  on  natural  science  had 
appeared  (1859),  in  the  science  of  historical  criticism 
the  theory  that  the  Hexateuch  was  made  up,  mainly, 
of  four  documents,  had  come  to  stay.  The  same  pro- 
cess of  examining  the  Scripture  itself  to  get  the  facts 
from  which  to  form  conclusions — i.  e.,  the  inductive 
method  of  Bible  study — has  been  used  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  of  the 
New  Testament  as  well. 

245.  Because   of   the   interesting  parallels   made 


2o6  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

between  the  accounts  in  Genesis  and  those  of  Assyri- 
ology,  the  stories  of  creation  and  of  the  flood  figure 
largely  in  the  early  development  of  the  science  of 
comparative  religion.  This  science,  too,  has  not 
been  without  its  more  or  less  bitter  controversies  with 
common  conceptions  of  Christianity  and  its  Bible. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PHILOSOPHY  AND  ISMS 

PHILOSOPHY 

246.  To  our  third  period  of  church  history  modern 
philosophy  belongs.  It  began  in  the  first  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Among  its  forerunners  were 
Giordano  Bruno  of  Italy,  Francis  Bacon  of  England, 
and  Jacob  Boehme  of  Germany.  Francis  Bacon's 
great  influence,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  was 
largely  due  to  the  place  he  gave  to  the  inductive 
method.  The  name  of  Jacob  Boehme  will  appear 
later  in  the  chapter,  when  we  consider  Mysticism. 
Giordano  Bruno  was  burned  as  a  heretic  in  Rome  in 
1600.  As  indicative  of  the  change  the  centuries  have 
wrought,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  1889,  at  the 
place  of  his  martyrdom,  a  statue  was  erected  in  his 
memory.  His  teaching  has  been  called  a  "poetic 
pantheism."  If  asked  the  names  of  those  repre- 
sentative philosophers  whose  lives  would  span  the 
stretch  between  the  sixteenth  and  twentieth  centuries, 
one  would  not  go  far-  astray  if  he  named  Descartes 
(1596-1650),  Spinoza  (1632-77),  Locke  (1632-1704), 
Berkeley  (1684-1753),  Kant  (1724-1804),  Hegel 
(1770-1831),  Comte  (1798-1857),  Schopenhauer 
(1788-1860),  and  Herbert  Spencer  (1820-1903). 
Seeking  for  an  undoubtedly  reliable  starting-point 
207 


2o8  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Descartes  began  with  his  famous  words:  Cogito, 
ergo  sum  ("I  think,  therefore  I  exist").  Following 
this,  the  pantheistic  philosophy  of  Spinoza,  a  Jew, 
has  exerted  a  potent  influence.  The  pantheism  of 
Spinoza  is  to  be  connected  with  that  of  Giordano 
Bruno. 

247.  Returning  to  England,  when  the  revolution 
of  1688  brought  Wilham  and  Mary  to  the  throne, 
John  Locke,  especially  through  his  famous  essay 
on  the  human  understanding,  exerted  a  great  influ- 
ence on  both  sides  of  the  EngUsh  Channel.  It  also 
strongly  influenced  Edwards,  and  so  New  England. 
According  to  Locke  there  were  no  innate  ideas. 
The  mind  was  as  a  blank  paper,  on  which  all  that 
was  written  came  from  experience  through  the  senses, 
and  through  reflection  upon  the  sensations  thus 
received.  According  to  Bishop  Berkeley,  of  Ireland, 
there  were  no  external  things,  not  even  a  human 
body,  through  which  to  receive  sensations.  The 
mind's  ideas  concerning  these  things  were  due  to  the 
direct  operation  of  God  upon  it. 

248.  Nearly  a  century  after  Locke's  great  work 
there  appeared,  in  1781,  Kant's  Critique  of  Pure 
Reason.  He  distinguished  between  pure  reason  and 
practical  reason.  In  pure  reason  the  mind  knows 
nothing  save  what  it  obtains  both  through  the  senses 
and  the  understanding.  It  therefore  does  not  know 
God.  Even  in  its  sensuous  experience  it  knows  only 
phenomena,  or  things  as  they  appear  to  be,  and  not 


Philosophy  and  Isms  209 

things  in  themselves.  Kant's  Critique  of  the  Practi- 
cal Reason  is  transcendental.  In  practical  reason 
the  mind  becomes  transcendent — ^i.  e.,  it  oversteps 
experience  and  is  a  law  unto  itself.  It  assumes  the 
existence  of  God,  freedom  of  will,  and  immortaUty. 
With  Kant  rehgion  was  but  a  handmaid.  MoraUty 
was  the  mistress.  Just  half  a  century  after  Kant's 
great  work  appeared,  Hegel  passed  away.  He  was 
the  last  of  the  great  ideaHsts.  With  him  God  was 
the  Absolute — i.  e.,  the  Unrelated  One.  His  system, 
called  "absolute  ideahsm,"  was  largely  speculative. 
For  a  time  it  exerted  great  influence  in  Germany. 
The  influence  of  the  idealistic  philosophy  of  Germany 
was  felt  in  England,  especially  through  Coleridge. 

249.  As  a  reaction  from  the  metaphysical  specula- 
tions of  the  ideahsts  came  the  scientific  investigation 
of  reahsm.  This  naturahsm  led  to  widespread 
materiahsm.  Auguste  Comte  was  the  founder  of 
Positivism.  According  to  it,  the  third,  and  highest, 
intellectual  stage  of  man  was  the  positive.  In  this 
stage  man,  in  his  study  of  phenomena,  no  longer 
bothered  about  any  theological  (i.  e.,  supernatural) 
or  even  metaphysical  origin  for  them.  A  Httle  older 
than  Comte,  and  outHving  him  by  a  few  years, 
Schopenhauer,  the  founder  of  the  philosophy  of 
pessimism,  taught  that  existence  was  an  evil  and  the 
world  the  worst  possible.  Our  last  name,  Herbert 
Spencer,  is  to  be  classed,  with  that  of  John  Stuart 
Mill,  among  the  associationahsts  who,  by  the  law  of 


210  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

the  association  of  one  idea  with  another,  so  that  the 
two  tend  to  be  together  in  consciousness,  sought  to 
explain  all  the  laws  of  thought.  The  great  object  of 
Herbert  Spencer's  life-work,  in  his  synthetic  philoso- 
phy, was  by  means  of  the  laws  of  evolution  to  explain 
the  principles  underlying  all  the  sciences. 

ISMS 

250.  Our  third  period  is  a  period  of  isms.  Be- 
sides those  already  noticed,  among  the  most  notable 
are  Anabaptism,  Mysticism,  Pietism,  Quietism, 
Socinianism,  Unitarianism,  Universalism,  Deism, 
Encyclopaedism,  Rationalism,  and  Ritschhanism. 

251.  Anabaptism  ("again  baptized")  means  the 
baptism  of  those  already  baptized  in  infancy.  The 
Anabaptists  go  back  to  within  a  few  years  of  151 7, 
and  include  all  deniers  of  infant  baptism.  With 
this  one  thing  in  common,  there  could  easily  be  much 
difference  between  them.  The  result  is  that  it  is 
necessary  to  distinguish  between  evangelical  and 
fanatical  Anabaptists.  The  one  was  represented  by 
Hubmeier,  and  has  been  continued  until  today  by 
Baptists  and  others.  The  other  was  represented  by 
Munzer  and  Hoffmann,  and  was  manifested  in  such 
immoral  excesses  as  at  Miinstcr. 

252.  Mysticism  is  difficult  to  define.  Theologi- 
cally it  is  a  striking  contrast  to  Rationalism.  It 
believes  in  a  divine  enhghtenment  above  the  reason. 
It  seeks  immediate,   blessed  consciousness  of  the 


Philosophy  and  Isms  211 

divine  essence.  It  fills  an  important  place  in  other 
religions  as  well  as  in  Christianity.  There  is  a  true 
and  a  false  Mysticism.  The  dividing  line  is  difficult 
to  draw.  On  its  false  side  it  is  related  to  Theosophy 
("wisdom  of  God"),  and  is  commonly  made  to 
coincide  with  it.  Theosophy  has  been  defined  as 
"God-intoxication" — the  wisdom  that  sees  God  in 
everything  and  everything  in  God.  Instead  of 
beginning  with  phenomena,  it  starts  with  an  affirmed 
direct  knowledge  of  God,  and  from  it  seeks  to  explain 
phenomena. 

253.  Among  Christian  Theosophists  may  be  men- 
tioned Jacob  Boehme,  of  Germany,  who  died  in 
1624,  and  Swedenborg,  of  Sweden,  but  who  died  in 
London  in  1772.  Swedenborg,  of  a  good  family  and 
himself  simple,  courteous,  faithful,  hard-working, 
and  humble,  beginning  in  1745,  claimed  to  have 
angelic  communications  concerning  the  spiritual 
sense  of  the  Bible.  In  Judaism  the  Theosophic 
Cabala  was  claimed  to  be  the  laws  handed  down 
orally  from  the  time  of  Moses  and  put  in  writing 
early  in  the  Christian  centuries.  In  her  advocacy 
of  the  system  of  Buddhism,  Madam  Blavatsky,  in 
1787,  founded  a  Theosophical  society  in  the  United 
States.  In  Mrs.  Besant  Theosophy  found  one  of  its 
ablest  advocates  in  recent  times. 

254.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that,  while 
Theosophy  speculates  concerning  the  universe,  true 
Mysticism    is    chiefly    concerned    with    the    soul's 


212  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

relation  to  Deity.  Both  Mysticism  and  Theosophy 
are  found  in  Mohammedan  sufism.  A  tendency  to 
Mysticism  and  Theosophy  was  a  characteristic  of 
Neoplatonism.  In  fact  through  its  Mysticism  it 
influenced  the  Middle  Ages,  and  its  influence  has 
continued  down  to  the  present  time.  This  was  due 
largely  to  the  Neoplatonic  writings  ascribed  to  Dio- 
nysius  the  Areopagite  (Acts,  chap.  17),  though  un- 
doubtedly written  centuries  later.  This  important 
Mystical  work  of  our  first  period  was  quoted  in  the 
Monophysite  discussions  in  the  sixth  century.  Early 
in  our  second  period  it  was  translated  into  Latin 
and  greatly  influenced  the  Schoolmen.  Among  the 
prominent  Mystics  of  the  Middle  Ages  may  be  men- 
tioned the  brilhant  pantheistic  Dominican,  Eckhart, 
the  poetic  servant  and  knight  of  eternal  wisdom, 
Heinrich  Suso,  and  the  author  of  the  famous  Imita- 
tion of  Christ,  Thomas  a  Kempis. 

255.  Mysticism  after  1517,  Hke  Anabaptism,  is 
discounted  because  of  the  excesses  of  many  of  its 
representatives.  At  its  best  it  is  related  to  a  move- 
ment for  the  cultivation  of  piety.  This,  called  Piet- 
ism, originated  under  Spener  in  the  last  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  It  was  a  reaction  against  the 
Lutheran  reUance  upon  mere  orthodoxy.  Answer- 
ing to  Pietism  in  Germany,  Jansenism  in  France,  and 
Quakerism  in  England,  there  arose  in  Spain  what  is 
called  Quietism.     It  was  a  reaction  against  dogma. 


Philosophy  and  Isms  213 

and  was  based  on  the  writing  of  Molinos,  a  Spanish 
priest  of  the  last  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Madame  Guyon,  of  the  next  century,  was  a  great 
French  representative  of  Quietism  in  its  contem- 
plation of  God. 

256.  In  the  sixteenth  century  prominent  among 
those  not  beheving  in  the  Trinity  were  Servetus  and 
an  uncle  and  nephew  by  the  name  of  Socinus.  Ser- 
vetus also  opposed  the  doctrine  of  original  sin,  that 
of  Luther  concerning  justification,  and  that  of  Calvin 
on  predestination.  His  burning  in  Geneva  leaves  a 
blot  on  Calvin's  record.  While  differing  from 
Ariam'sm  and  modern  Unitarianism,  Socinianism  is 
akin  to  both.  Among  the  distinguished  representa- 
tives of  modern  Unitarianism  are  to  be  included 
James  Martineau,  in  England,  and  William  Ellery 
Channing,  of  the  United  States.  The  literature  of 
the  latter  country  owes  very  much  to  Unitarian 
writers.  It  is  suggestive  of  the  trend  of  thought 
between  the  great  rehgions  that  American  Unitarian- 
ism is  in  touch  with  the  Brahmo  Somaj,  a  Unitarian 
kind  of  Brahmanism.  It  is  also  now  in  close  touch 
with  Universahsm.  This,  while  believed  more  or 
less  from  early  Christian  times,  was  organized  in 
America  by  John  Murray,  near  the  end  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Prominent  among  the  UniversaHst 
leaders  was  Hosea  Ballou,  who  came  to  the  belief 
soon  held  by  a  large  part  of  his  denomination — ^i.  e.. 


214  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Unitarian  Universalism  which,  stated  negatively, 
does  not  beheve  either  in  the  Trinity  or  in  eternal 
punishment. 

257.  In  England  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  were  some  who  did  not  believe  in  the 
Trinity  and  were  opposed  to  behef  in  supernatural- 
ism.  Known  as  the  English  Deists,  they  exerted 
much  influence.  It  was  to  meet  the  "loose  kind  of 
Deism"  prevalent  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century  that  Joseph  Butler  (afterward  bishop)  wrote 
his  famous  Analogy,  of  which  the  full  title  is  The 
Analogy  of  Religion  Natural  and  Revealed  to  the 
Constitution  and  Course  of  Nature. 

258.  As  developed  in  France,  along  the  line  of 
sensation  alone,  which  was  looked  upon  as  including 
reflection,  Locke's  philosophy  resulted,  in  the  eight- 
eenth century,  in  a  materialistic  philosophy  that  had 
no  place  for  a  distinctively  spiritual  nature.  This 
French  materialism  led  to  a  modern  Epicureanism — 
the  sensuous  becoming  sensual.  Locke  himself  was 
a  believer  in  Christianity  and  in  the  Bible.  The 
brilliant  Voltaire,  who  introduced  Locke's  essay  into 
France,  though  strictly  not  an  atheist,  but  rather  a 
deist,  was  a  bitter  opponent  of  supernatural  religion. 
At  the  end  of  his  letters  to  his  friends  he  wrote: 
Ecrasez  Vinjam  ("  Exterminate  the  wretch ").  Dide- 
rot, the  chief  of  the  Encyclopaedists  (so  called  from 
their  relations  to  a  rationalistic  encyclopaedia  of  the 
eighteenth  century),   was   nearer  materialism   than 


Philosophy  and  Isms  215 

Voltaire.  This  period,  with  its  exaltation  of  reason 
and  its  contempt  for  authority  and  tradition,  is 
sometimes  called  the  period  of  enlightenment  in 
France. 

259.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  corresponding  to 
this  "enlightenment"  in  France,  was  the  Aujkldrung, 
or  period  of  enlightenment,  in  Germany.  In  this. 
Rationalism,  as  opposed  to  supematuralism,  made 
reason  rather  than  the  Scripture  supreme.  Though 
the  term  "Rationalist"  is  not  used  until  our  third 
period,  the  thing  itself  is  found  in  the  second.  The 
name  of  being  the  first  Rationalist  is  given  to  Abelard, 
who  lived  in  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  a  most 
popular  lecturer  in  philosophy  and  theology.  After 
a  debate  with  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  he  was  con- 
demned as  a  heretic.  One  of  the  most  pathetic 
romances  in  history  is  that  between  him  and  Heloise. 
Early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  Wolff,  besides 
other  contributions,  made  reason  the  arbiter  between 
experience  and  what  was  thought  to  be  revealed. 
German  Rationalism,  unlike  English  Deism  and 
French  Naturalism,  though  it  strongly  emphasized 
the  limitations  of  Bible  times,  did  not  break  away 
completely  from  the  Bible  and  the  church.  Before 
the  end  of  the  century  an  extreme  deistic  position 
was  reached  in  the  notorious  "  Wolf enbuttel  Frag- 
ments." According  to  these,  Christ  was  a  visionary 
reformer,  whose  plan  of  a  temporal  kingdom  miser- 
ably failed.     A  distinguished  English  opponent  of 


2i6  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

this  rationalistic  tendency  of  the  eighteenth  century 
was  Paley.  His  most  influential  work  was  his 
famous  Evidences  0}  Christianity,  1794. 

260.  In  Germany  the  tide  was  turned  through  the 
influence  of  Jacobi,  the  philosopher  of  faith,  and 
Schleiermacher,  the  most  prominent  name  in  German 
theology  in  the  first  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Trained  by  the  Moravians,  the  influences  of  his  early 
religious  experiences  remained  with  him  despite  his 
subsequent  doubts.  His  first  important  work  put 
the  emphasis  upon  religious  feeling.  His  greatest 
work,  Christian  Dogmatics  (to  be  placed  alongside 
Calvin's  Institutes),  is  based  upon  experience  and 
the  sense  of  complete  dependence  upon  God.  While 
he  was  influenced  by  Spinoza's  pantheism,  and  was 
accused  of  not  being  orthodox  concerning  the  Trinity, 
the  Bible,  the  birth  of  Jesus,  etc.,  he  made  Christ 
central  in  his  thought. 

261.  In  1835,  a  year  after  Schleiermacher's 
death,  Strauss's  Life  of  Jesus  appeared.  In  it  the 
New  Testament  records  concerning  Jesus  were  rep- 
resented as  largely  the  product  of  a  myth-making 
tendency.  One  of  the  great  results  of  the  extensive 
and  intensive  controversy  that  followed  the  publica- 
tion of  this  book  was  an  increased  appreciation  of  the 
value  of  Jesus  to  the  world.  To  be  placed  with 
Strauss's  work,  though  not  appearing  until  1863,  is 
Kenan's  beautifully  written  Life  of  Jesus.  Accord- 
ing to  Renan,  Christianity  was  but  a  natural  out- 


Philosophy  and  Isms  217 

growth  of  its  times,  and  Jesus  simply  "a  lovable 
hero  of  a  Galilean  village."  Baur,  a  contemporary 
of  Strauss,  was  the  founder  of  what  is  called  the 
Tubingen  school.  According  to  this,  most  of  the 
New  Testament  was  written  in  the  second  century  as 
the  result  of  the  conflict  between  Paul  and  the 
original  apostles  concerning  the  extent  of  Judaistic 
influences  upon  Christianity.  Baur  acknowledged 
that  Paul  was  the  author  of  Romans,  I  and  II 
Corinthians,  and  Galatians. 

262.  At  first  an  adherent  of  this  Tubingen  school 
Ritschl  broke  from  it  and  became  the  founder  of  the 
Ritschlian  or  Gottingen  school.  It  includes  among 
its  representatives  Harnack,  Hermann,  Kaftan,  Lob- 
stein,  Schultz,  and  Wendt.  Prominent  in  Ritschl's 
system  is  the  theory  of  value- judgments  (Werth- 
Urtheile),  according  to  which  the  test  of  reli- 
gious truths  is  their  value  to  us.  We  do  not  know 
things  in  themselves.  To  say  with  Hegel  that  God 
is  the  Absolute,  the  Unrelated  One,  is  unwarranted. 
Any  thought  of  God  that  has  value  for  us  brings 
him  into  relation  with  us.  The  thought  concerning 
Jesus  is  not  speculative,  but  practical — not  what  is 
his  nature  in  itself,  but  what  he  is  worth  to  us.  Much 
is  made  of  the  kingdom  of  God  as  that  which  was 
founded  by  Jesus,  who  in  disposition  and  will  was 
one  with  the  Father.  The  death  of  Jesus  is  not 
made  central.  The  traditional  view  of  inspiration  is 
discarded.     Religion  is  a  growth.     Conversion  is  a 


2i8  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

process.  In  America  noticeable  among  the  influ- 
ences preparing  the  way  for  it  was  that  of  Horace 
Bushnell. 

As  the  conclusion  of  Part  III  perhaps  we  had  better 
add  that,  as  in  Bible  times,  so  in  Christian  times 
views  have  been  changed,  sometimes  for  the  better 
and  sometimes  for  the  worse.  A  knowledge  of  church 
history  should  affect  our  attitude  to  both  old  and 
new  beliefs  today.  On  the  one  hand,  it  should  pre- 
vent a  precipitate  acceptance  of  the  latest  theories 
and  beliefs.  On  the  other  hand,  it  should  guard  us 
against  extreme  conservatism  in  holding  inherited 
beliefs.  They  may  have  been  the  results  of  a  wrong 
change  of  view  in  the  more  or  less  distant  past ;  or 
at  best  they  may  be  but  good  inns  on  the  road  to 
truths  of  greater  worth — good  places  to  have  tarried 
a  little,  but  not  places  to  abide.  Though  we  have 
not  preached  historical  sermons  in  Part  III,  it  is 
hoped  that  between  the  lines  many  helpful  lessons 
have  been  learned — such  as  the  importance  of  deep 
convictions,  and  of  loyalty  to  them  even  though  it 
mean  martyrdom;  the  importance  of  being  open  to 
conviction,  and  of  guarding  against  that  spirit  of 
intolerance  that  forbids  others  (even  though  they 
are  doing  a  noble  work)  because  they  "followed  not 
us"  (Mark  9 :  38-42) ;  the  importance  of  emphasizing 
the  fundamentals  in  which  we  agree  with  others, 
and  of  avoiding  undue  attention  to  the  minor  points 
of  difference;  and  above  all  and  including  all,  the 
importance  of  being  actuated  by  Christian  love. 


PART  IV 
CHRISTIANITY  TODAY 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  GLORIOUS  GOSPEL 

INTRODUCTORY 

263.  The  aim  of  Part  IV,  which  begins  with  this 
chapter,  is  not  to  give  a  complete  system  of  theology 
but  rather  to  give  helpful  points  of  view  from  which 
to  judge  the  different  theological  questions;  to  give 
the  most  important  of  the  behefs  that  may  be  said 
to  be  estabHshed;  and  to  give  most  attention  to  that 
which  will  make  most  for  a  holy,  helpful,  joyous 
life.  Let  us  begin  with  a  text  of  Scripture:  "For  I 
am  not  ashamed  of  the  gospel  for  it  is  the  power  of  God 
unto  salvation  to  evcr)^one  that  beheveth;  to  the  Jew 
first  and  also  to  the  Greek."  If  asked  to  select  from 
all  Paul's  writings  the  one  verse  that  would  give  most, 
and  best,  his  spirit  and  message,  it  would  be  this 
verse  in  the  first  chapter  of  Romans.  The  context 
reveals  Paul  the  preacher.  The  context  and  con- 
tents reveal  Paul  the  Christian.  Keeping  in  mind 
its  especial  appropriateness  to  preachers,  let  us  look 
upon  it  as  a  text  for  all  Christians.  It  is  a  golden 
locket  that  from  her  infancy  has  adorned  the  church. 
It  has  two  golden  "fors."  The  first  is  a  fink  con- 
necting the  locket  with  the  chain  of  golden  thought 
preceding.  The  second  is  a  hinge.  As  the  locket 
opens  upon  it,  we  behold  two  companion  pictures. 


222  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

In  one  Paul  is  defining  his  position  with  respect  to 
the  gospel.  In  the  other  he  is  making  his  defense. 
Notice,  then,  first, 

THE  christian's  POSITION  DEFINED 

264.  Position  can  be  known  and  described  only 
in  view  of  surroundings.  We  notice  first  Paul's 
age  and  his  position  in  it ;  then  our  own  age  and  the 
true  position  for  Christians  today.  Paul's  age. 
Romans  was  written,  say,  in  or  near  58.  Rome  in 
58  was  the  center  of  the  world.  Knowing  her  we 
know  Paul's  age.  She  was  central,  not  simply  in 
her  position,  but  through  her  power.  Around  her 
the  circle  of  world-forces  was  described.  Into  her 
converged  the  radii  of  military  roads  and  mercantile 
routes.  Through  these  she  sent  forth  her  power  and 
drew  in  her  wealth.  By  this,  the  arts,  especially 
architecture,  were  fed  and  nourished.  Augustus 
was  dead,  but  his  works  remained.  He  found  Rome 
brick,  but  left  it  marble.  It  was  marble  still.  The 
temple  of  Jupiter,  the  fora,  colonnades,  aqueducts, 
and  baths  were  those  that  became  the  foremost  city 
of  the  world.  Rome  in  58  was  the  brain  of  the 
world;  as  the  seat  not  simply  of  power,  but,  to  a 
certain  extent,  of  culture  as  well.  Much  of  this  was 
innate.  Though  we  may  not  trace  any  direct  connec- 
tion between  Seneca,  the  Stoic  philosopher,  and  Paul, 
the  Christian  apostle,  we  know  they  were  contem- 
poraries.    Virgil,  Livy,  Horace,  Ovid,  though  dead, 


The  Glorious  Gospel  ii^ 

Still  spoke.  Much  was  received  from  without. 
Through  her  efferent  nerves  Rome  manifested  her 
power  in  smiting  the  nations,  but,  as  she  did,  her 
afferent  nerves  were  thrilled  with  the  language, 
literature,  and  general  culture  of  the  conquered.  In 
Rome  the  wisdom  of  Greece  and  the  splendor  of 
the  Orient  joined  hands  with  Roman  power. 

265.  The  Roman  girl  of  Mrs.  Hemans  sang  truly: 
"On  thy  seven  hills  of  yore  thou  satst  a  queen." 
Millions  bowed  submissively  to  her  royal  will  and 
executed  expeditiously  her  imperious  command. 
Her  sons  and  daughters,  and  even  her  adopted  chil- 
dren, were  kings  and  queens.  No  wonder,  then,  in 
whatever  land  they  were,  they  gloried  in  their  royal 
Roman  riches,  rights,  and  power.  Paul  had  found 
the  existence  of  the  empire  exceedingly  helpful  in  his 
missionary  travels.  He  himself  was  bom  into 
Roman  citizenship;  and  again  and  again  it  had 
protected  him.  He  was  thus  the  better  able  to 
appreciate  the  proud  Roman's  attitude  to  the  gospel 
whose  founder  was,  not  a  Roman,  but  a  poor  Jew 
who  had  been  crucified  by  Rome. 

266.  In  the  membership  of  the  Roman  church 
were  both  Jews  and  gentiles.  Many  of  the  latter 
probably  had  taken  a  preUminary  step  in  becoming, 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  believers  in  Judaism. 
The  proselyting  zeal  of  the  Jewish  rulers  is  referred 
to  in  Matt.  23: 15.  The  result,  as  given  in  that  one 
verse,  should  be  taken  in  connection  with  Sanday 


224  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

and  Headlam's  words  concernng  the  Jews  of  the 
Dispersion : 

Round  most  of  the  Jewish  colonies  there  was  gradually 
formed  a  fringe  of  gentiles  more  or  less  in  active  sympathy  with 
their  religion — the  "devout  men  and  women,"  "those  who 
worshiped  God,"  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  For  the  student 
of  the  origin  of  the  Christian  Church  this  class  is  of  great 
importance,  because  it  more  than  any  other  was  the  seed  plot 
of  Christianity;  in  it  more  than  in  any  other  the  Gospel  took 
root  and  spread  with  ease  and  rapidity. 

267.  Though  the  social  standing  of  the  Roman 
Christians  may  well  have  been  above  the  average 
condition  of  the  early  Christians,  yet  from  some 
things  in  the  epistle  (such  as  the  names  in  the  salu- 
tations) we  infer  that  many  of  them  were  slaves. 
About  such  the  haughty  Romans  would  know  little 
and  care  less.  Doubtless,  however,  the  great  objec- 
tion to  Christianity  was  the  offense  of  the  cross.  To 
get  the  meaning  of  the  cross  for  that  time,  we  must 
forget  the  sacred  associations  that  have  clustered 
around  it  and  think  of  it  as  being  viewed  then  as  we 
view  the  gallows  today.  The  opinions  of  Tacitus, 
Suetonius,  and  Pliny,  writing  about  the  end  of  the 
century,  throw  some  hght  upon  the  Roman  attitude 
toward  Christianity  in  the  time  of  Paul.  To  them 
it  was  a  new,  dire,  harmful  superstition  to  be  classed 
among  the  shameful  and  atrocious  things  encouraged 
at  Rome.  Describing,  in  a  word,  the  attitude  of 
Paul's  age,  we  woyld  say :  It  was  ignorant  indiffer- 


The  Glorious  Gospel  225 

ence  that,  with  increase  of  knowledge,  deepened  into 
strongest  contempt  and  even  hate. 

268.  To  such  an  age  Paul  preached.  The  Epistle 
to  the  Romans  is  his  written  sermon,  or  rather  con- 
densed notes  for  a  series  of  sermons.  His  theme  is 
the  verse  we  have  already  mentioned.  He  leads  up 
to  it  by  stating  his  position.  Let  us  hear  it  as  he 
explains  and  expands  his  notes.  "I  am  separated 
unto  the  work  of  the  gospel  ministry.  I  have 
preached  in  other  gentile  cities  with  good  results. 
I  feel  your  need  of  instruction.  I  am  eager  to  preach 
to  you  also  who  are  in  Rome."  He  pauses  a  moment 
then  continues:  " I  am  not  unmindful  of  the  increas- 
ing contempt  in  which  we  are  held  in  Rome.  I  have 
felt  the  pulse  of  the  age.  At  Athens,  before  my 
sermon,  they  said  one  to  the  other:  'What  will  this 
babbler  have  to  say  ? '  Before  I  finished  they  inter- 
rupted me  by  mocking  at  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead.  Even  the  Jews,  from  whom  we  are  distin- 
guished only  to  be  treated  with  greater  contempt, 
themselves  despise  and  persecute  us.  At  Lystra 
they  left  me  for  dead.  I  have  felt  all  this;  I  have 
felt  keenly  the  reproach  of  a  Christian.  Yet,"  he 
continues,  "yet,  in  spite  of  Jewish  persecutions,  in 
spite  of  gentile  contempt,  this  is  ever  my  position  in 
this  age :  I  am  eager  to  preach  the  gospel,  for  I  am 
not  ashamed  of  it ;  and  I  have  reason  for  not  being 
ashamed."     And  he  had. 

269.  We  turn  from  Paul's  age  to  our  own.     Time 


2  26  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

has  wrought  great  changes.  The  Roman  Empire, 
the  glory  of  58,  is  now  but  a  fact  of  history.  Chris- 
tianity, a  thing  to  be  ignored  in  58,  is  now  the  all- 
important  factor  of  the  age.  Its  rise  has  been 
greater  than  the  fall  of  Rome.  Where  stood  grim 
Roman  forts,  now  Christian  churches  stand,  and 
through  these,  many  lands  unknown  to  Rome  have 
been  conquered  and  kept.  The  angle  remaining  the 
same,  the  larger  the  base  of  the  pyramid,  the  higher 
the  pyramid  rises.  Christianity,  by  its  marvelous 
spread,  has  risen  in  the  estimation  of  the  world. 
The  center  has  changed  from  Rome  to  Calvary. 
The  despised  GaHlean  malefactor  has  taken  a  higher 
place  than  Caesar  in  the  worship  of  mankind.  His 
heralds  are  sent  to  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  His 
soldiers  fight  in  every  land.  On  their  banners  is  the 
once  despised,  but  now  glorified,  cross.  Everywhere 
the  spires  of  their  garrisons  catch  the  first  gHnt  of  the 
rising  sun.  Everywhere  they  catch  his  last  rays  as 
he  smiles  good-night.  The  learned  seek  wisdom 
of  Him  who  was  ''meek  and  lowly  in  heart."  The 
wealthy  of  the  earth  pay  tribute  to  Him  who  was 
poor  in  material  things  as  well  as  in  spirit.  Even 
the  kings  of  the  earth  and  the  mighty  ones  let  fall 
their  scepters  and  prostrate  themselves  before  him 
who  was  despised  and  rejected  of  men. 

270.  What  a  difference  between  Paul's  age  and 
ours !  In  view  of  this  change^  it  is  but  idle  for  us  to 
repeat  Paul's  words:    "I  am  not  ashamed  of  the 


The  Glorious  Gospel  227 

gospel."  We  should  be  ashamed  to  have  them 
repeated  in  our  pulpits.  We  should  be  ashamed  to 
hear  them  so  often  in  our  meetings.  More  fitting 
for  a  citizen  of  Rome,  in  the  days  of  her  greatness, 
to  say,  "I  am  not  ashamed  of  Rome,"  than  for  a 
Christian,  in  this  age,  to  say  (in  the  very  church  of 
Christ,  whom  everyone  in  the  audience  either  loves 
or  respects),  "I  am  not  ashamed  of  the  gospel  of 
Christ."  Someone  may  urge:  "You  forget  that 
this  expression  is  a  figure  of  speech  called  litotes,  in 
which  Paul  meant  much  more  than  he  said."  Very 
true;  but  it  is  a  htotes  that  should  have  no  place 
whatever  among  us.  The  heralds  of  the  gospel 
must  adapt  themselves  to  the  age  in  which  they  live. 
Paul's  was  an  age  of  contempt;  therefore  he  said: 
"  I  am  not  ashamed  of  the  gospel."  There  followed 
an  age  of  persecution,  in  which  he,  and  many  others 
after  him,  said:  "I  am  not  afraid  to  own  myself  an 
adherent  of  the  gospel."  Not  until  we  get  the  char- 
acteristic of  this  age  do  we  learn  the  true  litotes  for 
today. 

271.  There  are  still  those  who  look  upon  Chris- 
tianity with  contempt.  There  are  still  places  where 
Christians  are  persecuted  for  Christ's  sake.  The 
greatest  characteristic  of  today,  however,  is  neither 
contempt  nor  persecution.  One  of  the  greatest,  if  not 
the  greatest,  characteristic  of  the  age,  in  its  attitude 
toward  the  gospel,  is  indifference.  This  is  common 
in  the  church  itself,  as  well  as  in  the  world  outside 


228  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

of  the  church.  Many  in  the  churches  are  satisfied 
with  an  external  application  of  what  is  to  them  the 
gospel  remedy,  and  they  are  indifi'erent  to  the  gospel 
as  an  internal  cure.  The  result  is  that  many  outside 
the  churches  are  indifferent  to  both  the  external 
and  the  internal  treatment.  Whatever  justification 
there  may  be  for  the  common  criticisms  of  Paul's 
sacrificial,  theological  presentation  of  the  way  in 
which  it  was  possible  for  the  gospel  to  come,  he  did 
earnestly  teach  and  strenuously  live  the  gospel  of  a 
living  oneness  with  God  in  purity,  justice,  mercy, 
and  love.  A  great  need  is  for  the  driving  or  drawing 
of  Christians  out  of  whatever  false  refuges  prevent 
them  from  experiencing  this  pure,  just,  merciful, 
loving  heaven  here.  Can  it  be  that  many  are  more 
or  less  affected  by  such  a  belief  in  an  easy  entrance 
into  a  heaven  hereafter  that  it  makes  them  indifferent 
to  the  securing  of  a  present  heaven  ?  In  the  midst  of 
the  sluggishness  inside  and  outside  the  churches,  the 
clarion  call  comes  to  awake.  Our  litotes  should  be: 
"I  am  not  indifferent  to  the  gospel  as  a  power  for 
making  heaven  here." 

272,  A  great  artist  so  painted  that  his  pictures, 
though  beautiful  in  his  own  age,  would  become  even 
more  beautiful  through  the  invisible  softening 
touches  of  the  hand  of  time.  That  hand  for  ages 
has  been  retouching  the  first  picture  of  our  locket. 
It  has  lightened  the  shadow  in  which  the  true  Chris- 
tian stood.     We  see  him  in  the  light  of  today.    His 


The  Glorious  Gospel  229 

cheeks  are  not  blushing  with  shame  nor  are  they 
pale  with  fear,  nor  are  his  eyes  dull  with  indifference. 
His  face  is  flushed  with  pride.  His  eyes  are  sparkling 
with  the  good  news  he  bears.  We  imagine  we  hear 
him  speak.  We  catch  his  first  words — words  that 
burst  forth  from  a  strong  soul  uttering  what  is  im- 
plied in  the  litotes  of  Paul:  "I  glory,  I  glory  in  the 
gospel."  It  is  the  picture  of  the  true  Christian  to- 
day. Our  position,  then,  in  this  age  of  indifference 
is  zeal  for  the  spread  of  the  gospel  because  we  glory 
in  it.  We  have  reason  for  it,  too.  Paul's  reason  is 
ours. 

THE  christian's  POSITION  DEFENDED 

273.  As  we  look  at  the  second  picture  of  our 
locket,  we  find  that  it  also  has  been  affected  by  time, 
but  in  a  very  different  way.  It  is  now  the  composite 
photograph  of  Christians  throughout  the  ages.  It  is 
decidedly  Pauline.  His  defense  is  our  defense. 
We  changed  his  words  a  little  in  defining  our  position. 
We  retain  his  words  in  making  our  defense.  Notice, 
then,  as  applying  both  to  Paul  and  to  ourselves: 
The  Christian's  position  defended.  Does  the  word 
"defended"  seem  too  strong  for  this  age?  It  is 
because  our  glorying  is  too  weak  and  we  are  lacking 
in  zeal.  Then  let  the  preacher  from  the  pulpit  say: 
"I  glory."  Let  the  Christian  "who  heareth"  him 
say:  "I  glory."  Thus  will  others  who  are  "athirst 
take  of  the  water  of  life,  freely"  and  say:  "I  glory" 


230  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

in  the  "gospel  of  the  glory  of  the  blessed  God;"  for 
"it  is  the  power  of  God  unto  salvation  to  everyone 
that  believeth." 

274.  This  defense  is  a  unit.  For  our  convenience, 
hovi^ever,  it  naturally  divides  into  two  parts.  The 
first  part  is  that  the  gospel  saves  everyone  that 
believes.  This  truth  is  implied — epitomized — in  the 
very  word  "gospel."  Gods  pel  {Gods  pell)  means 
"  God-story,"  i.  e.,  of  Jesus.  Godspel,  the  word 
from  which  it  seems  to  be  derived,  exactly  corre- 
sponds to  the  Greek  word  translated  "gospel."  God 
means  "good."  Spel  means  "history,"  "story," 
"tidings."  Godspel,  then,  from  which  the  finger  of 
time  has  rubbed  out  d  and  shortened  0,  means 
"good  tidings."  We  glory  in  the  gospel  because  it 
is  good  tidings.  We  glory  in  it  because  its  good 
tidings  are  true.  We  glory  in  it  because  its  good 
tidings  are  of  the  greatest  importance  too.  It  saves. 
Sin  brings  a  sense  of  separation  from  God.  To  feel 
justified,  pardoned,  forgiven,  is  to  feel  that  we  are 
saved  from  the  sad  condition  of  those  lost  from  God. 
To  be  saved  from  this  implies  being  brought  into  re- 
lationship with  him.  This  relationship  is  often 
called  eternal  life.  This,  it  should  be  remembered, 
has  a  qualitative  as  well  as  a  quantitative  meaning. 
It  is  intensive  as  well  as  extensive. 

275.  Gospel  salvation  is  commonly  used  to  include 
this  eternal  life.  It  is  thus  not  simply  negative,  it  is 
positive.     We  glory  in  our  armies  and  navies  that 


The  Glorious  Gospel  231 

destroy;  how  much  more  should  we  glory  in  that 
which  saves — which  saves  man's  soul!  Words  will 
not  express  what  that  means.  Only  he  can  know,  in 
any  degree,  what  it  means  who,  in  his  sorrowful 
meditations,  has  seen  the  pitiable  condition  of  a  soul 
lost  from  God;  and,  in  his  joyful  meditations,  has 
caught  sweet  glimpses  into  the  Presence  and  heard 
the  songs  of  the  redeemed.  We  have  not  been  in 
the  counsel-chamber  of  Omniscience,  and  do  not 
know  all  about  the  why  and  the  how  of  this  salvation 
that  comes  to  man.  We  may  not  fully  understand 
or  agree  with  the  philosophers  and  theologians 
(including  Paul  himself)  who  have  endeavored  to 
explain  the  mystery;  and  we  may  even  question 
whether  they  themselves  fully  understood  the  lan- 
guage they  have  sometimes  used;  but  we  ourselves 
have  obtained  this  sweet  sense  of  forgiveness  and  of 
communion  with  God.  Believing  that  it  has  been 
obtained,  and  that  it  can  be  obtained  by  many  others, 
we  glory  in  this  so  great  salvation. 

276.  How  is  it  obtained  ?  It  is  so  great  that  it  is 
beyond  the  works  of  man  alone.  The  Jews  felt  that, 
through  their  Jewish  birth,  or  by  keeping  the  law, 
they  could  be  saved.  Paul  at  the  beginning  of  his 
epistle  says:  "No,  salvation  is  not  obtained  through 
birth."  "They  are  not  all  Israel  that  are  of  Israel." 
It  is  also  beyond  the  reach  of  man's  good  works. 
Not  of  works  "that  no  man  should  glory."  It  is  a 
gift  obtained  through  faith.     This  is  a  word  of  so 


232  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

great  importance  that  the  gospel,  and  even  Chris- 
tianity itself,  are  spoken  of  as  the  Faith,  It  is  a 
word  of  various  meanings  in  the  Bible.  There  is  a 
faith  that  does  not  save.  We  read  that  "the  devils 
also  believe  and  shudder."  The  belief  that  saves 
implies  repentance.  In  this  there  may  be  little  emo- 
tion, or  there  may  be  much;  but  to  be  true  repent- 
ance there  must  be  the  exercise  of  the  will  in  turning 
away  from  that  which  brings  the  sense  of  separation 
of  the  soul  from  God.  Conversion  is  the  turning 
from  sin  to  God.  The  turning  from  sin  is  repent- 
ance. The  turning  to  God  is  faith.  Whatever  the 
teaching  of  Paul  and  others  concerning  the  kind  of 
faith  necessary  for  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  life, 
the  truest  prayer  of  Christian  faith  is  not,  "  O  Lord, 
impute,"  but,  "O  Lord,  impart"  thy  righteousness 
unto  me.  For  salvation,  taken  in  its  positive  as  well 
as  in  its  negative  meaning,  the  faith  that  is  necessary 
is  a  faith  that  appropriates  the  life  of  God,  and  as  a 
consequence  is  manifested  in  good  works.  The 
greater  this  kind  of  faith,  the  greater  the  salvation  of 
those  "who  are  being  saved"  by  the  "power  of  God" 
(I  Cor.  i:i8-R.V.). 

277.  Faith,  with  all  that  it  implies,  is  the  only 
condition  of  obtaining  this  salvation.  All  nations  can 
believe.  The  wildest  Indian,  the  lowest  Hottentot, 
can  then  be  saved.  The  little  child  and  the  chief 
of  sinners  can  believe.  All,  then,  can  be  saved. 
The  gospel  invites  all  because  it  can  save  to  the 


The  Glorious  Gospel  233 

uttermost.  It  cries  aloud:  "Whosoever  will." 
Can  we  be  indifferent  to  this  universal  invitation  ? 
Rather,  since  confessing  Christ  is  part  of  the  righteous 
obedience  of  faith,  let  us  zealously  confess  him  before 
men.  Let  us  cry :  "  Who  shall  forbid  us  from  glorying 
in  this  gospel  which  saves  everyone  that  believes  ?" 
Let  the  confession  of  our  lives  be  commensurate 
with  the  glorying  with  our  lips.  During  vacation 
as  well  as  during  a  revival,  in  the  summer  resort  as 
well  as  in  the  congregation  of  our  church,  let  us 
ever  be  seeking  to  save  souls. 

278.  The  second  part  of  Paul's  defense  is  that  the 
gospel  is  the  "power  of  God."  Great  results  must 
have  great  causes.  Back  of  this  great  salvation  there 
must  be  a  great  power.  History  speaks  in  clearest 
tones  of  the  power  of  the  gospel.  What  painter 
changed  the  dark  picture  of  the  world  in  58  to  the 
bright  picture  of  today?  The  gospel.  What  has 
overthrown  the  dark  institutions  of  slavery  and  idol- 
atry ?  What  has  reared  the  magnificent  churches, 
cathedrals,  and  philanthropic  institutions  ?  The  gos- 
pel. We  need  not  look  into  the  distant  past.  The 
converts  among  the  heathen  Telugu,  the  converts  in 
cannibal  Aniwa,  the  Jerry  McAuleys  of  our  city  mis- 
sions, all  corroborate  the  testimony  of  history  to  this 
powerful  gospel.  In  the  days  of  Greece  and  Rome 
physical  and  mental  power  climbed  to  heights  before 
unknown.  They  found  but  little  there  to  satisfy  the 
increased  yearnings  of  the  soul.     Roman  might  was 


234  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

unable,  Grecian  mind  knew  not  how,  to  meet  the 
deepest  longings  of  the  soul.  The  gospel  meets 
these  because  it  is  the  power  of  God,  omnipotent, 
omniscient,  ever  sufficient. 

279.  As  a  boy,  running  about  a  sawmill,  I  remem- 
ber being  impressed  with  the  work  of  what  we  called 
a  "shifter."  By  means  of  this  the  belt  was  shifted 
from  one  pulley  to  another  alongside,  but  independ- 
ent, of  the  first.  When  the  belt  was  on  the  pulley  or 
drum,  not  connected  with  the  machinery  upstairs,  it 
went  around  all  right,  but  no  work  was  done.  When, 
by  means  of  the  shifter,  it  was  run  on  to  the  other 
drum,  away  went  the  machinery,  and  much  work 
was  the  result.  The  shifter  was  simply  a  wooden 
frame  in  which  two  rollers  were  set.  Useless,  save 
when  back  of  it  was  the  power  of  man.  By  the 
gospel  story  the  current  of  a  man's  life  is  so  changed 
that  he  no  longer  expends  all  his  energies  in  simply 
living  for  himself,  but  in  accomplishing  a  great  work 
for  the  glory  of  God.  How  great  the  change !  How 
simple  the  shifter!  Insufficient  if  back  of  it,  in  it, 
was  not  the  power  of  God  (I  Cor.  2:4,  5).  The 
story  goes  that  concerning  a  sword  with  which  a  hero 
had  done  wonders  someone  remarked  to  the  effect 
that  it  was  not  much  of  a  sword  after  all.  To  this 
came  the  reply:  "You  see  the  sword,  but  not  the 
arm  that  wielded  it."  Men  often  marvel  that  the 
simple  gospel  story  has  wrought  such  wonders  in  the 
world.     They  see  but  the  story,  and  not  behind  it  the 


The  Glorious  Gospel  235 

almighty  arm  of  God.  It  is  the  sword  of  the  Spirit. 
It  is  the  power  of  God.  "Alexander,  Caesar,  Char- 
lemagne, and  I  myself,"  said  Napoleon,  "founded 
great  empires ;  but  upon  what  do  these  creations  of  our 
genius  depend  ?  Upon  force.  Jesus  alone  founded 
his  empire  upon  love,  and  to  this  day  millions  would 
die  for  him."  The  gospel  is  the  power  of  love, 
because  it  is  the  power  of  God;  for  "God  is 
love." 

280.  Happy  are  those  who  in  the  still  hour  have 
been  deeply  impressed  with  these  companion  truths : 
the  gospel  is  the  power  of  God,  not  of  man;  and  the 
gospel  is  the  power  of  God  through  man.  We  need 
to  learn  the  first.  There  are  many  despondent 
Christians.  They  are  discouraged  over  the  work. 
Men  with  hoary  locks  and  men  in  their  prime  are 
dropping  out  practically  indifferent  to  the  gospel. 
Nineteen  centuries  have  passed.  How  dark  the 
world !  How  many  benighted  in  the  lands  beyond ! 
How  many  indifferent  at  home!  Would  that  the 
discouraged,  the  despondent,  the  despairing  could 
see  that  the  work  is  in  God's  hands!  With  him 
nineteen  centuries  are  but  nineteen  ticks  of  time. 
Is  our  labor  ineffective  ?  Let  us  see  to  it  that  we, 
with  the  simple  message  and  in  the  simple,  living  way, 
present  the  gospel.  It  will  draw,  it  will  save;  for  it 
is  the  power  of  God.  We  need  also  in  the  still  hour 
to  learn  the  second  truth :  the  gospel  is  the  power  of 
God  through  man.     We  may  thus,  with  Paul,  call  it 


236  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

"my  gospel,"  because,  to  use  Paul's  own  words,  "it 
is  the  gospel  committed  to  my  trust." 

281.  Let  us,  in  conclusion,  ask  ourselves  a  perti- 
nent, personal  question:  Are  we  as  zealous  as  we 
should  be  for  the  spread  of  the  gospel  at  home  and 
abroad  ?  If  not,  why  not  ?  If  not,  it  is  because  the 
great  truths  of  Paul's  defense  have  not  taken  full 
possession  of  our  souls.  They  were  a  part  of  Paul's 
very  being.  Why?  Because  they  were  incarnated 
by  his  rich  experience.  To  him  the  gospel  was  the 
power  of  God  because  he  felt  its  power  in  saving  him 
(and  others  through  him)  from  the  lower  self  into 
the  higher  life  with  Christ  in  God.  What  was  it 
that  made  John  G.  Paton  so  to  glory  in  the  power  of 
the  gospel?  His  rich  experience  of  that  power. 
How  his  words  thrilled,  as  he  said :  "  I  do  not  believe 
that  the  gospel  is  weak  today.  It  is  just  as  powerful 
as  in  the  days  of  the  apostles."  We  may  not  be  able 
to  glory  with  such  veterans  of  the  cross.  There  was  a 
time,  however,  when  John  G.  Paton  himself  was 
inexperienced.  I  shall  not  forget  seeing  him — the 
picture  of  a  patriarch — as  with  tears  in  his  eyes  he 
said,  in  a  voice  tremulous  with  emotion:  "I  do  not 
see  how  a  man  can  love  Jesus  without  telling  it  to 
others,  who  can  believe  in  him  without  trying  to  get 
others  to  believe  also."  That  was  the  secret  of  his 
later,  richer  experience.  We  have  felt  the  gospel's 
power  in  saving  us.  Let  us  so  tell  it  to  others, 
especially  by  the  holy  helpfulness  of  our  lives,  that 


The  Glorious  Gospel  237 

we  shall  see  it  manifested  in  saving  them.  Thus 
shall  our  experience  increase.  Thus  shall  we  go  on 
from  faith  to  faith,  from  strength  to  strength,  from 
zeal  to  zeal,  from  glory  to  glory.  Thus  shall  we  both 
live  it  ourselves  and  lead  others  to  the  source  of  the 
"Beautiful  Life." 

282.  A  beautiful  twice-told  tale  is  that  told  by 
L.  W.  Waterman,  who  heard  it  in  Appleton  Chapel 
as  it  was  told  to  Harvard  students.  It  is  a  story  of  a 
suggestive  question — why  it  was  asked,  how  it  was 
answered,  and  the  result.  A  Japanese  student  in 
America,  when  ushered  into  a  clergyman's  study, 
abruptly  asked :  "  Sir,  can  you  tell  me  how  I  can  find 
the  Beautiful  Life?"  To  the  questions  of  the  puz- 
zled clergyman  he  replied  that  he  had  seen,  but  did 
not  care  for,  the  Christian's  Bible,  church,  or  religion; 
but  he  had  seen  the  Beautiful  Life.  It  was  lived  in  a 
boarding-house  in  San  Francisco.  The  one  who 
lived  it  was  a  poor,  uneducated  old  man ;  but  he  was 
always  helping  others  and  was  very  happy.  The 
clergyman  impressively  read  Paul's  great  chapter  on 
love  as  a  description  of  the  Beautiful  Life.  "It 
sounds  like  it,"  said  the  Japanese.  Then  he  was 
told  the  story  of  Jesus  and  given  a  twentieth-century 
New  Testament.  Though  inquiring  for  a  more 
modern  book,  he  took  it  and  was  gone.  The  next 
time  they  met,  the  student  was  on  his  way  back  to 
Japan  to  take  an  important  position  there.  His  face 
was  aglow.    As  described  by  the  clergyman  himself: 


238  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

"  It  was  as  the  face  of  one  of  you  young  men  who  had 
just  told  of  his  love.  He  did  not  need  to  utter  a 
word.  He  caught  my  hand  and  said:  'I  can  only 
stop  a  minute;  but  I  felt  I  must  see  you  once  more, 
and  tell  you  I  have  found  the  Beautiful  Life;  I  have 
found  Jesus.'  " 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  DEATH  OF  JESUS 

CONCERNING  THEORIES  OF  THE  ATONEMENT 

283.  What  does  it  mean  to  find  Jesus?  The 
derivation  of  his  name  suggests  his  mission.  "Thou 
shalt  call  his  name  Jesus;  for  it  is  he  that  shall  save 
his  people  from  their  sins."  To  find  Jesus  is  to  find 
the  Savior.  As  his  death  has  taken  such  a  large  place 
in  the  great  salvation  of  the  glorious  gospel,  we  will 
give  this  chapter  to  the  significance  of  his  death. 
Let  it  be  stated  at  the  outset  that  the  purpose  is  not 
to  formulate  and  advocate  a  particular  theory  con- 
cerning what  is  commonly  called  the  atonement. 
The  purpose  is  simply  to  offer  some  suggestions  that 
will  make  for  right  living,  and  to  this  end  will  help 
correct  some  erroneous  ideas  concerning  the  meaning 
of  the  cross.  I  have  five  suggestions  to  offer.  The 
first  is  that  the  most  important  thing  is,  by  no  means, 
to  make  sure  of  a  definite,  clearly  stated  theory  of 
the  atonement.  I  would  insist  on  this  in  the  light 
of  the  Bible  itself,  of  church  history,  and  of  analogy. 

284.  In  the  light  of  the  Bible  itself.  One  cannot 
read  it  without  being  impressed  with  the  significance 
that  is  there  attached  to  the  death  of  Jesus,  whose 
blessed  hands  "were  nailed  for  our  advantage  on 
the  bitter  cross."     The  four  gospels  give  about  one- 

239 


240  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

fourth  of  their  space  to  the  treatment  of  the  last  week 
of  his  life.  Their  representations  of  his  own  attitude 
toward  his  death  are  suggestive.  In  the  rest  of  the 
New  Testament  his  life  is  seldom  referred  to;  but 
the  frequent  references  to  his  death  and  resurrection 
suggest  that  these  were  constantly  in  the  thought  of 
the  early  church.  His  death,  undoubtedly,  was 
viewed  as  very  significant  for  salvation.  Neverthe- 
less, the  New  Testament  contains  no  clearly  formu- 
lated theory  as  to  how  his  death  saves.  Not  only  that, 
but,  from  all  the  passages  referring  to  his  death,  we 
find  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  formulate  a  perfectly 
consistent  and  satisfactory  theory.  From  a  closer 
study  of  these  passages,  we  more  than  suspect  that 
Christ's  death  is  somewhat  differently  viewed  by 
different  writers.  We  should  not  be  surprised  to 
be  shown  that  it  was  somewhat  differently  viewed 
by  the  apostle  Paul  at  different  periods  in  his  life. 

285.  In  the  light  of  church  history.  For  about 
one  thousand  years  the  theory  commonly  held  was 
that  developed  from  the  New  Testament  figure  of  the 
ransom.  Christ's  death  was  a  ransom  paid  to  the 
devil.  It  was  even  held,  as  suggested  by  Origen, 
that  God  exchanged  for  the  souls  of  men  the  soul  of 
Christ,  which  he  knew  could  not  be  permanently 
retained  by  the  evil  one.  It  was  actually  believed  by 
many  that  God  thus  outwitted  the  devil  in  the  bar- 
gain. We  wonder  now  how  those  Christians  could 
ever  have  held  such  a  crude,  and  even  immoral. 


The  Death  of  Jesus  241 

theory  concerning  the  significance  of  Christ's  death. 
We  do  not  deny,  however,  that  they  were  saved  from 
sin  through  that  death.  In  the  history  of  the  church, 
men,  who  professed  love  for  God  and  their  fellows, 
have  fought  bitter  theological  battles  among  them- 
selves because,  while  professing  to  be  saved  through 
the  death  of  Jesus,  they  differed  in  their  views  as 
to  just  how  his  death  saved  them.  Imagine  some 
brothers  wrangling  over  a  brother's  grave,  and,  in 
so  doing,  letting  their  other  brothers  die,  when,  by 
heeding  the  counsels  of  him  who  died  and  the  les- 
sons learned  through  his  life  and  death,  they  might 
have  saved  their  brothers.  Such  is  much  of  the  con- 
troversy in  church  history  over  the  theories  of  the 
atonement. 

286.  In  the  light  of  analogy.  I  have  heard 
scientists  readily  acknowledge  their  ignorance  of  the 
essence  of  electricity,  and  that  they  differed  in  their 
theories  concerning  it.  That,  however,  did  not  pre- 
vent them  from  being  benefited  by  the  fact  of  elec- 
tricity. A  man  may  differ  from  others  in  his  history 
of  electricity,  or  may  change  from  one  theory  to 
another,  or  may  have  no  theory  to  speak  of,  and  yet 
may  use  the  mighty  fact  itself.  So  a  man  may  differ 
from  others  in  his  theory  of  the  saving  significance 
of  Christ's  death,  or  may  change  from  one  theory  to 
another,  or  even  may  have  no  theory  to  speak  of, 
and  yet,  through  the  saving  power  of  that  death,  be 
made  at  one  with  God.     The  legend  goes  that  St. 


242  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Dominic,  leading  his  forces  to  victory,  went  through 
the  fight  unharmed  because  he  carried  in  his  hand  a 
large  crucifix.  The  Christ  of  the  crucifix  was  also 
untouched,  but  the  cross  itself  was  pierced  by  the 
weapons  of  the  foe.  That  cross  represents  any 
particular  theory  of  the  saving  significance  of  Christ's 
death.  It  may  be  marred.  The  crucified  Christ, 
however,  will  remain  unharmed  to  protect  from  the 
harm  of  sin  and  to  lead  to  victory  over  sin. 

CONCERNING  FIGURATIVE  REFERENCES 

287.  Our  second  suggestion  is  concerning  figura- 
tive references  to  the  death  of  Christ.  Be  very  care- 
ful of  a  figure  of  speech,  especially  if  it  travels  alone. 
Do  not  let  it  run  on  all  fours,  or  it  will  take  you  into 
dangerous  places.  Do  not  try  to  bridge  the  gulf 
between  man's  sin  and  the  holiness  of  God  with  the 
network  of  a  single  metaphor,  or  you  will  fall  through 
its  meshes.  Let  one  metaphor  be  overlaid  with  a 
number  of  others,  and  even  then  be  careful  how 
you  proceed.  For  instance,  let  the  figure  of  cleans- 
ing blood  (I  John  1:7)  be  qualified  by  the  figure  of 
drinking  the  blood  (John  6:56).  Let  the  idea  of  a 
propitiation  of  an  angry  God  be  qualified  with  other 
representations  of  God,  such  as  that  he  himself 
makes  the  propitiation.  We  could  not  then  have 
such  thoughts  as  found  expression  in:  "I  love  Jesus 
Christ,  but  I  hate  God." 

288.  Be  very  careful  about  the  figurative  use  of 


The  Death  oj  Jesus  243 

the  Old  Testament  sacrifices.  Let  it  be  kept  in 
mind  that,  in  the  Old  Testament  prophets,  such 
lofty  passages  as  Isa.  1:10-17;  Am,  5:21-24;  and 
Mic.  6:6-8,  emphasize  righteousness  as  compared 
with  rites  and  sacrifices.  Progress  was  made  when 
the  prophetic  idea  of  righteousness  dominated  the 
priestly  idea  of  rites  and  sacrifices.  Let  not,  there- 
fore, the  erroneous  idea  of  actual  sacrifice,  that  was 
condemned  by  these  passages,  return  in  the  figure  of 
sacrifice  as  appHed  to  Christ's  death,  no  matter  by 
whom  the  figure  may  be  used.  Let  the  modern 
prophets  inveigh  against  any  figurative  use  of  the 
death  of  Christ  as  a  sacrifice  that,  in  any  way, 
works  against  the  most  strenuous  endeavor  for  right- 
eousness, mercy,  and  humble  walking  with  God.  If 
the  death  of  Jesus  makes  for  anything,  it  makes  for 
righteousness.  If  it  means  anything,  it  means  the 
impartation  of  righteous,  joyous,  strenuous  love. 

289.  Surely  in  vain  was  the  cross  of  Calvary 
stained  with  the  hfe-blood  of  Jesus,  if  through  his 
death  men  in  the  presence  of  temptation  are  but 
weakened  with  the  false  and  fatal  behef  that  the  full 
penalty  of  their  sins  will  not  be  meted  out  to  them 
simply  because  they  have  that  belief.  The  cross  is 
not  an  iron  anchor  with  which  to  grip  the  lazy  shore 
of  false  security.  It  is  the  mast  on  which  to  spread 
the  sail  that  makes  for  joyous  progress  to  the  haven 
of  a  heavenly  bhss  through  Christlike  character. 
Those  who  look  upon  it  as  a  fire-escape  from  hell. 


244  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

rather  than  as  a  means  of  rising  above  the  selfishness 
of  sin,  have  missed  its  mighty  meaning  for  this  sinful 
world. 

Cursed  through  the  cure  of  Calvary's  cross 
Are  they,  not  cured  through  Calvary's  curse, 
Who  think  the  remedy  a  simple  wash 
And  would  apply,  but  not  assimilate 
The  blood  thereof  which  is  the  life  thereof. 
Unless  the  death  of  Christ  imparteth  life 
What  better  than  an  idol  is  the  cross  ? 
The  faith  that  saves  is  not  the  faith  that  says 
That  "Jesus  died  for  me"  and  finds  the  blood 
A  sleeping  potion,  not  inspiring  wine. 
The  faith  that  saves  receiveth  life  from  God 
And  manifests  itself  in  loving  deeds. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  HIS  LIFE 

290.  The  third  suggestion  I  would  make  in  deter- 
mining the  significance  of  the  death  of  Jesus  is :  Let 
due  emphasis  be  given  to  the  significance  of  his  life. 
It  is  natural  to  expect  that  the  knowledge  of  how  he 
lived  would  be  helpful  in  obtaining  the  knowledge 
of  how  and  why  he  died.  All  will  agree  that  we  are 
on  the  way  to  wisdom  concerning  the  meaning  of  his 
death  when  "we  would  see  Jesus"  in  his  Ufe  upon 
the  earth.  Edward  Everett  Hale  beheved  Fanny 
Kemble  was  right  when  she  told  him  she  was  glad 
she  did  not  know  more  of  the  personal  life  of 
Shakespeare.  He  himself  was  sorry  that  Hallam 
Tennyson,  in  writing  the  biography  of  Lord  Tenny- 
son, had  made  that  great  poet  seem  very  earthy. 


The  Death  of  Jesus  245 

Even  though  some  may  fear  that  increased  knowledge 
of  the  actual  Jesus  would  show  a  considerable  differ- 
ence between  him  and  the  Christ  of  theology,  is  it 
not  true  that  the  nearer  we  come  to  him,  as  he  actually 
lived,  the  nearer  may  we  come  to  the  right  position  for 
the  truest  consideration  of  the  meaning  of  his  death  ? 
291.  The  information  concerning  the  hfe  of  Jesus 
given  in  the  early  non- Christian  writings  is  very 
meager.  Practically  all  the  material  for  the  study 
must  be  obtained  from  Christian  sources  and  mainly 
from  the  New  Testament,  I  would  suggest  that  the 
Gospels  of  Mark,  Matthew,  Luke,  and  John  be 
considered  separately;  that  the  first  three  be  com- 
pared to  get  a  synoptic  view  of  Jesus;  and  that  this 
be  compared  with  the  Jesus  of  the  Fourth  Gospel. 
I  would  suggest  that  other  New  Testament  references 
to  his  Hfe  be  carefully  considered.  I  would  not,  by 
any  false  view  of  inspiration,  interfere  with  the  most 
critical  investigations.  I  would  be  wilhng  that  those 
who  are  able  to  do  it  go  back  of  the  documents  to 
estimate  their  worth.  I  would  simply  ask  for  an 
honest  effort  to  find  out  who  Jesus  really  was,  and 
to  walk  with  him  whose  feet  pressed  the  soil  of  Pales- 
tine, and  whose  voice  was  heard  upon  its  waters  and 
among  its  hills.  I  have  a  passion  to  bring  men  into 
touch  with  Jesus  of  Nazareth  and  have  them  stay 
with  him  until  he  becomes  Jesus  of  Calvary.  Along 
the  way  of  Jesus'  life  I  would  have  men  come  to  the 
foot  of  the  cross  and  see  the  Savior. 


246  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

292.  Could  his  church  come  into  touch  with  him 
thus,  I  think  she  would  marvel,  though  often  empha- 
sizing the  simpHcity  of  the  plan  of  salvation,  that  she 
herself  should  have  stumbled  over  the  simpUcity  of 
the  way  to  God  through  him.  To  a  modern  Nico- 
demus  asking  concerning  the  way  of  salvation, 
"How  can  these  things  be?"  the  modern  Phihp 
makes  his  truest  answer  when  he  says:  " Come  and 
see.  Get  acquainted  with  Jesus  himself.  Follow 
the  best  that  is  in  you  as  you  learn  of  him,  and  you 
will  find  yourself  at  one  with  God."  The  Fourth 
Gospel  gives  as  the  words  of  Jesus:  "And  I  if  I  be 
Hfted  up  from  the  earth  will  draw  all  men  to  myself." 
If  we  can  bring  men  into  the  magnetic  field  of  this 
magnet,  so  that  they  experience  the  fact  of  salvation 
in  being  drawn  away  from  sin,  we  need  not  care  so 
much  about  their  theories  concerning  the  magnetic 
influence. 

REVELATIONS  AT  THE  CROSS 

293.  Our  fourth  suggestion  is:  Viewing  his  death 
as  the  climax  of  his  life,  what  are  its  great  revela- 
tions? There  are  certainly  two — sin  and  love.  It 
reveals  the  awfulness  of  sin.  What  a  tragedy,  what 
an  awful  climax  to  a  protracted  tragedy,  was  that 
scene  on  Calvary!  The  subtle  selfishness  of  the 
legahstic  rehgious  leaders;  their  bitter  opposition  to 
the  teaching  of  Jesus  that  rehgion  was  of  the  heart; 
the  cruelty  of  their  envy  and  hate ;  the  coarse  mock- 


The  Death  oj  Jesus  247 

ery  of  the  soldiers;  the  despicable  conduct  of  Pilate; 
the  dulness  of  even  the  disciples  to  the  spiritual 
nature  of  their  Master's  work;  their  selfish  ambi- 
tions even  when  the  cross  was  near;  their  desertion 
in  the  time  of  danger;  the  shameful  denial  by  Peter; 
the  deeply  dyed  treachery  of  Judas;  the  insistent 
cry,  "Crucify  him,  crucify  him;"  the  travesty  of 
justice  when  he  was  tried;  the  via  dolorosa;  the 
thorns  and  nails  and  spear;  the  shameful  death- 
penalty;  the  protracted  physical  agony;  the  deeper 
agony  because  of  the  sinfulness  of  it  all;  the  inno- 
cence of  the  victim;  his  heroic  heart  breaking 
because  of  the  sinfulness  of  the  world — what  a  reve- 
lation of  the  awfulness  of  sin !  It  not  only  reacts 
upon  the  sinner,  but  it  reaches  out  with  its  awful 
consequences  to  the  innocent,  and  smites  and  wounds 
and  breaks  the  very  heart  of  love.  This  is  the  depth 
of  the  sin  of  Calvary.  It  was  a  sin  against  love. 
"Be  afraid  of  the  love  that  loves  you,"  says  one;  "it 
is  either  your  heaven  or  your  hell."  Jesus  "came 
unto  his  own  and  his  own  received  him  not."  They 
enviously,  hatefully,  mockingly,  cruelly  put  to  death 
their  best  friend,  who  steadfastly  set  his  face  to  go  to 
this  awful  death  in  very  love  for  them.  This  is  the 
tragedy  of  Calvary.     This  is  its  glory  too. 

294.  This  brings  us  to  the  other  great  revelation  at 
the  cross — the  revelation  of  love.  Coming  along 
the  way  of  his  hfe  to  his  cross,  we  see  this  super- 
scription in  the  language  of  religion,  business,  and 


248  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

culture:  "Jesus  of  Calvary,  the  King  of  love." 
How  deeply  the  cross  has  impressed  upon  the  souls 
of  men  the  love  of  Jesus  for  God  and  man !  It  has 
been  suggested  that  in  all  true  love  there  are  a  recog- 
nition of  w^orth,  a  desire  to  possess,  and  a  desire  to 
bless.  How  the  cross  seals  the  evidence  to  the 
presence  and  greatness  of  these  three  elements  in 
the  love  of  Jesus !  The  great  test  of  true  love  is  the 
third.  For  God's  sake  and  man's,  Jesus  endured  the 
cross  and  despised  the  shame.  How  brightly  his  love 
stood  the  fiery  test  of  martyrdom !  This  is  the  glory 
of  the  cross.  This  is  why  "all  the  Hght  of  sacred 
story  gathers  round  its  head  sublime."  We  have 
already  referred  to  an  American  artist's  suggestive 
picture  of  the  crucifixion,  where  there  are  but  two 
crosses  visible — those  of  the  robbers.  Over  them  is 
a  bow  of  hope.  Between  them,  where  we  would 
expect  the  cross  of  Jesus  with  its  representation  of 
agony,  is  a  flood  of  ineffable  light.  It  is  the  Hght 
that  gives  hope  to  the  world.  It  is  the  hght  of  love. 
295.  Is  it  the  love  of  God  as  well  as  of  Jesus? 
Browning  makes  the  aged  apostle  John  say : 

I  say  the  acknowledgment  of  God  in  Christ, 
Accepted  by  thy  reason,  solves  for  thee 
All  questions  in  the  earth  and  out  of  it 
And  has  so  far  advanced  thee  to  be  wise. 

The  place  of  increasing  importance  given  to  the  behef 
in  the  divine  indwelHng  has  made  this  "  acknowledg- 
ment" "accepted"  more  readily  by  many,  and  has 


The  Death  oj  Jesus  249 

"advanced"  them  "to  be  wise"  concerning  the 
great  questions  of  theology,  including  that  of  the 
significance  of  Christ's  death.  The  story  has  fre- 
quently been  told  of  the  children  to  whom  was  given 
a  dissected  map  of  the  world.  Trying  to  put  it 
together,  they  failed,  until  on  the  other  side  of  its 
perplexing  pieces  they  found  pictures  of  different 
parts  of  a  human  body.  Soon  the  picture  of  a  man 
was  before  them,  and  lo!  on  the  other  side  was  a 
complete  map  of  the  world.  How  perplexing  the 
relations  within  and  between  the  different  parts  of 
the  world  of  Christian  theology !  If  men  could  but 
see  Jesus  in  the  symmetry  of  his  "human  hfe  of 
God,"  these  perplexing  relations,  including  what  we 
prefer  to  call  the  at-one-ment,  would  be  better 
understood. 

296.  "Human  hfe  of  God" — how  meaningful 
that  expression  as  we  stand  at  the  cross!  What  a 
ghmpse  it  gives  into  the  heart  of  God !  God's  heart 
bleeding  because  of  sin!  How  awful  then  is  sin! 
God  seeing  such  worth  in  man,  desiring  so  to  possess 
him,  yearning  so  to  bless,  and  suffering  on  his  behalf ! 
What  ineffable  love!  Suggestive,  then,  the  words 
of  President  W.  H.  P.  Faunce : 

The  great  conviction  that  in  Christ  the  mind  of  God  has 
entered  into  the  life  of  man  has  been  the  source  of  incalculable 
moral  energy.  It  is  not  so  important  to  be  sure  that  Christ  is 
like  God  as  it  is  to  be  possessed  of  the  immovable  conviction 
that  God  is  like  Christ;  that  God  is  not  a  Caesar  or  a  Sen- 
nacherib; but  is  like  Jesus.  This  is  the  renovating  idea 
which  has  purified  and  uplifted  the  moral  world. 


250  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

This  is  the  idea  that  will  purify  and  uplift  today. 

LIFE  IN  VIEW  OF  THE  CROSS 

297.  The  words  of  Dr.  Faunce  lead  us  to  our  fifth 
and  last  suggestion :  In  the  presence  of  the  cross  let  us 
ask  about  our  lives  in  view  of  its  revelations.  It 
should  help  us  in  the  fight  against  sin  in  our  own 
lives  and  in  the  fives  of  others.  It  is  said  that,  when 
Cameron  of  Lochiel  was  asked  to  fight  for  Prince 
Charfie,  and  it  was  doubtful  what  he  would  do,  he 
was  told :  "  If  this  prince  once  sets  his  eyes  upon  you, 
he  will  make  you  do  whatever  he  pleases."  The 
prophecy  came  true.  We  would  that  any  hesitating 
in  the  fight  against  sin  could  be  brought  along  the 
course  of  Christ's  fife  to  the  knoll  of  Calvary  itself, 
that  the  "Strong  Son  of  God"  might  look  into  their 
hearts;  for  "one  look  of  that  pale  suffering  face" 
would  make  them  feel  the  "deep  disgrace  of  weak- 
ness." In  a  discussion  in  Chicago  Commons  a 
sociafistic  workman  arose  and  said:  "It  was  to  get 
the  beast  that  is  in  man  out  of  us  all  that  Christ  hung 
upon  the  cross ;  and  it  makes  a  fellow's  heart  full  to 
think  he  had  to  die  for  that."  Among  the  things 
with  which  it  fills  the  heart  is  an  intense  desire  to  be 
superior  to  beastly  weaknesses,  to  be  free  and  to  help 
free  from  sin,  to  be  good  soldiers  of  the  cross  in  a 
Christlike  fight  against  sin. 

298.  Standing  at  the  cross  should  also  help  us  test 
our  love  by  the  love  that  is  there  revealed.     How  often 


The  Death  oj  Jesus  251 

our  professed  love  is  almost  lacking  in  one  or  more 
of  the  elements  of  the  love  of  Jesus !  The  compari- 
son of  our  love  with  his,  as  we  stand  at  the  cross,  will 
quicken  in  us  a  strong  desire  for  a  truer  love.  "  To 
let  the  new  life  in  we  know  desire  must  ope  the  portal." 
The  new  life  that  we  desire  is  the  Hfe  of  truest  love. 
Love  begets  love.  "We  love,  because  he  first  loved 
us."  In  the  practice  of  medicine  the  blood  of  the 
strong  has  sometimes  been  inserted  into  the  body  of 
the  weak,  who  have  been  strengthened  thereby.  So 
the  Christlike  life,  the  Christlike  love,  of  God  has 
been  imparted  to  those  who  yearned  for  it  at  the  foot 
of  the  cross.  As  thus,  in  yearning  faith,  they  have 
fully  yielded  to  its  wondrous  spell,  they  have  been 
hypnotized  with  such  Christhke  love  that,  at  times, 
they  have  felt  that  they  could  do  all  things,  even  to 
the  enduring  of  the  cross,  for  the  love  of  God  and  man. 
299.  Principles  are  more  easily  understood  and 
lived  when  they  have  been  seen  exempHfied  in  the 
lives  of  persons.  The  principle  of  love,  the  great 
principle  of  Christianity,  is  more  easily  understood 
and  Hved  in  the  light  of  the  knowledge  of  the  cross  of 
Jesus.  When  asked  how  popular  liberty  could  best 
be  taught,  Mirabeau  repHed :  "  Begin  with  the  infant 
in  the  cradle,  and  let  the  first  name  it  lisps  be  Wash- 
ington." What  is  the  best  way  to  teach  popular 
freedom  from  the  thraldom  of  sin  ?  Begin  with  the 
infant  in  the  cradle,  and  let  the  first  name  it  Hsps  be 
Jesus.     "  It  is  he  that  shall  save  his  people  from  their 


252  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

sins."  "To  steep  ourselves  in  him,"  says  one,  con- 
cerning the  "founder  who  himself  was  what  he 
taught,"  "is  still  the  chief  matter;  but  to  restrict 
ourselves  to  him  means  to  take  a  point  of  view  too 
low  for  his  significance.  Individual  rehgious  life 
was  what  he  wanted  to  kindle  and  what  he  did  kindle ; 
it  is  his  pecuHar  greatness  to  have  led  men  to  God, 
so  that  they  may  henceforth  Hve  their  own  life  with 
him." 

300.  What  a  leader!  Next  to  him  in  founding 
Christianity  was  Paul.  Why  ?  Mainly  because,  as 
a  great  theologian  who  lived  a  strenuous  life,  his 
peerless  poem  on  love  (I  Cor.,  chap.  13)  was  the  ex- 
pression of  his  heart;  and  because,  as  one  who  lived 
a  Christlike  life  of  self-sacrificing  love,  he  pointed 
others  to  the  Christ.  To  the  Corinthians  he  wrote: 
"  Be  ye  imitators  of  me  even  as  I  also  am  of  Christ." 
His  words  suggest  the  leading  musician  of  an  orches- 
tra. From  his  instrument  the  other  instruments 
have  been  tuned,  but  he  himself,  with  the  rest,  is 
under  the  direction  of  the  conductor.  If  Paul,  who 
made  many  hearts  to  respond  to  the  harmony  of 
heaven,  be  considered  the  leading  apostle,  he  himself 
looked  to  Jesus  Christ  as  the  peerless  leader.  The 
recognition  of  this  leadership,  this  lordship,  of  Jesus 
has  made,  and  still  makes,  for  unity.  To  quote 
again  from  Dr.  Faunce : 

In  this  unity  are  included  many  who,  by  reason  of  intel- 
lectual constitution  or  training,  will  prefer  a  formula  which 


The  Death  of  Jesus  253 

differs  from  yours  or  mine.  They  may  halt  over  our  phrases 
while  they  share  our  attitude.  They  may  confound  the  per- 
sons or  divide  the  substance,  while  following  Jesus  Christ  to 
prison  and  to  death.  If,  in  the  interests  of  truth,  we  must 
guard  our  creed-subscription,  in  the  interest  of  the  Christian 
life  we  must  guard  against  an  intolerant  intellectualism  which 
would  ask,  not  what  is  a  man's  supreme  allegiance,  but  what 
is  his  latest  definition. 

Recognizing  the  unifying  and  inspiring  influence  of 
the  name  of  a  great  leader,  let  us  rally  round  the 
cross,  with  the  cry:  "The  Lord  Jesus!"  In  the 
summer  of  1889  the  students  at  Northfield  were 
electrified  by  a  cablegram  from  Japan.  In  it  the 
Christian  students  of  the  Sunrise  Kingdom  sent  this 
striking  message:  "Make  Jesus  king."  To  us,  in 
whose  hearts  and  lives  selfishness  has  still  great,  and 
with  some  it  may  be  increasing,  power;  to  us,  away 
from  God  and  in  need  of  a  great  leader  to  bring  us 
back  to  the  Father;  to  us,  as  along  the  way  of  Jesus' 
life  we  have  come  to  the  cross — to  us,  through  the 
ocean  of  God's  grace,  there  comes  this  living  message 
charged  with  the  electricity  of  God's  love:  "Make 
Jesus  king."  Well  for  us  if  we  can  sing:  "The 
King  of  love  my  Shepherd  is."  As  the  "good  shep- 
herd" who  laid  down  his  life  for  the  sheep,  in  the 
fatherhood  of  God  Jesus  "saw  one  clue  to  life  and 
followed  it."     To  follow  him  is  to  find  the  Father. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  FATHERHOOD  OF  GOD 

INTRODUCTORY 

301.  The  development  of  the  idea  of  Deity  meant 
more  than  increased  dominion  for  Jehovah.  It 
meant  the  changing  of  his  character.  Though  in 
Malachi  we  read,  "I,  Jehovah,  change  not,"  and  in 
James  of  the  "  Father  of  Hghts  with  whom  can  be  no 
variation,"  yet  man's  conceptions  of  God  have  varied 
widely  and  have  changed.  In  the  second  part  of  the 
second  century  Marcion  taught  that  there  were  two 
Gods  in  Scripture :  one  the  just  demiurge  of  the  Old 
Testament  Jews,  and  the  other  the  good  God  of  the 
New  Testament  Christians.  Someone  has  said: 
"There  is  no  widely  propagated  error  which  is  not 
based  on  some  fundamental  truth."  The  widely 
propagated  error  in  Marcion's  teaching  was  that  the 
God  of  Christians  was  altogether  unknown  in  Old 
Testament  times.  The  fundamental  truth  was  that 
he  was  not  as  well  known  then.  Though  the  father 
loves  his  babe,  he  is  to  it  at  first  Httle  more  than  a 
thing.  Later  he  is  httle  more  than  a  stranger.  Still 
later,  however,  he  is  looked  upon  as  father,  whose 
fatherhness  is  increasingly  appreciated  as  the  child 
develops.  As  with  a  child,  so  with  a  race.  The 
people  of  Jehovah  had  to  pass  through  many  develop- 
254 


The  Fatherhood  of  God  255 

mg  experiences  (settlement  in  Canaan,  rise  of  mon- 
archy, exile,  the  coming  of  Jesus,  etc.)  before  it  came 
to  a  high  appreciation  of  his  fatherhood. 

302.  Ephesians  3:5  at  least  suggests  the  truth 
that  clears  away  so  many  moral  and  other  difficulties 
in  the  Scripture,  throws  light  upon  many  passages 
otherwise  obscure,  and  enables  us  the  better  to 
"assert  eternal  providence"  and,  through  Scripture, 
"to  justify  the  ways  of  God  to  man."  It  enables  us 
to  see  Moses,  Samuel,  Amos,  Hosca,  Isaiah,  Ezckiel, 
and  the  rest  rising  as  high  and  higher  mountain 
peaks,  in  their  revelations  concerning  God,  until  their 
highest  summit  was  reached  in  Jesus  Christ.  He 
connected  earth  with  heaven  and  showed  the  way 
for  men  to  get  to  God  the  Father.  He  was,  how- 
ever, by  no  means  the  first  to  teach  the  fatherhood  of 
God.  This  is  to  be  found  in  Old  Testament  times 
inside,  and  even  outside,  the  Old  Testament  itself. 
Among  the  Greek  gods  Zeus  was  the  "father  of  gods 
and  men."  In  the  very  name  "Jupiter,"  "best  and 
greatest "  of  the  Roman  gods,  is  found  the  word  for 
"father."  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  Koran  does 
not  use  the  term  "father"  as  a  name  of  God.  In 
discussing  the  term  "Son  of  God"  we  have  already 
noticed  the  Old  Testament  meaning  of  divine  father- 
hood. What  Jesus  did  for  the  conception  of  God's 
fatherhood  was  twofold — he  gave  it  more  prominence 
and  he  put  a  richer  meaning  into  it. 

303.  What  meaning  has  it  for  us  today  ?  "Father," 


256  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

like  "cause,"  is  a  relative  term.  As  cause  always 
implies  effect,  father  always  implies  child.  If  God 
be  father,  who  are  his  children  ?  Are  all  men  ?  In 
John  8 : 44  we  read  that  Jesus  said :  "Ye  are  of  your 

father,  the  devil "     How,  then,  could  they 

be  children  of  God  ?  Is  it  possible  for  a  child  to 
have  two  fathers  ?  Does  not  the  forty-second  verse 
imply  that  Jesus  thought  that  God  was  not  their 
father?  Again,  is  it  possible  to  be  father  to  the 
same  child  twice  ?  Could  God  be  father  in  creation 
and  also  in  regeneration  or  new-birth  ?  Should  not 
"  Our  Father  "  of  what  is  commonly  called  the  Lord's 
Prayer  be  used  only  by  Christians  ?  From  the  fact 
that  God  is  father,  what  can  be  inferred  concerning 
his  children  ?  In  what  way  or  ways,  and  for  how 
long,  has  God  been  the  father  of  Jesus?  What  is 
the  relationship  between  the  Father  and  the  other 
persons  in  the  Trinity?  The  attempts  to  answer 
these  questions  have  occasioned  many  controversies. 
We  would  suggest  what  may  show  that  the  dispute, 
after  all,  is  due  not  so  much  to  different  views  of 
doctrine  as  to  different  uses  of  terms.  It  would  make 
for  harmony  if  four  things  were  recognized  more 
commonly  and  clearly  than  they  are:  I.  There  is  a 
radical  difference  between  the  real  and  the  figurative 
meanings  of  fatherhood.  II.  As  used  concerning 
God  in  his  relationship  to  men,  the  term  "father" 
is  figurative.  III.  Taken  figuratively,  the  meaning 
of  the  term  is  so  elastic  that  different  men  at  the  same 


The  Fatherhood  of  God  257 

time,  and  one  man  at  different  times,  may  use  it  with 
widely  different  meanings.  IV.  In  any  discussion 
concerning  it  the  utmost  care  should  be  taken  that 
each  understands  just  the  meaning  intended  when 
he,  or  the  other,  uses  the  word  "father,"  or  related 
terms. 

REAL  FATHERHOOD 

304.  I.  What  is  real  fatherhood  as  distinguished 
from  that  which  is  figurative  ?  Though  the  meaning 
of  real  fatherhood  varies  considerably,  and  is  there- 
fore difficult  to  define,  we  find  something  that  is 
always  there.  In  this  it  differs  from  figurative 
fatherhood  in  the  meanings  of  which  there  is  nothing 
that  is  always  present.  That  meaning  which  is  con- 
stant, without  which  there  is  no  real  fatherhood,  and 
which  we  therefore  call  its  primary  meaning,  is  male 
parentage  of  a  human  child.  The  secondary  mean- 
ing, which  varies  and  may  include  fatherly  love,  etc., 
is  not  absolutely  essential  to  real  fatherhood.  For 
instance,  a  man  may  be  a  father  and  not  be  fatherly, 
for  he  may  not  know  that  he  has  a  child.  If,  there- 
fore, a  definition  of  real  fatherhood  be  asked  for, 
the  only  logical  definition  is  its  primary  meaning. 
While  real  fatherhood  may  mean  more  than  mere 
male  parentage  of  a  human  child,  it  musl  mean  that. 
If,  where  the  term  "father"  is  used,  it  does  not 
include  this  meaning,  the  reference  is  not  to  real,  but 
to  figurative,  fatherhood. 


258  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

FIGURATIVE  AS  USED  OF  GOD 

305.  II.  Can  there  be  any  question  but  that  the 
reference  is  figurative  when  the  term  is  used  con- 
cerning God  as  the  father  of  men  ?  When  the  Psalm- 
ist called  God  his  shepherd,  God  was  not  a  real 
shepherd  to  him.  The  term  was  a  human  term 
figuratively  applied  to  God.  When,  in  Isaiah,  we 
read,  "Thy  Maker  is  thy  husband,"  we  do  not  think 
of  God  as  a  real  husband.  The  word  obtained  from 
human  relations  was  simply  used  figuratively  con- 
cerning God.  So,  when  we  speak  of  God  as  our 
father  (whatever  may  have  been  the  meaning  of 
Eph.  3:14,  15),  is  it  not  true  that  the  term,  as  used 
concerning  God,  is  taken  from  the  relation  between 
a  man  and  his  child,  and  is  applied  figuratively  to 
God  ?  As  when  we  say  of  a  certain  child  that  his 
father  is  his  God,  so,  when  we  say  that  God  is  "Our 
Father,"  do  we  not  in  each  case  use  a  figure  of 
speech  ?  As  when  we  say  a  certain  father  is  godly, 
so,  when  we  say  that  God  is  fatherly,  do  we  not  speak 
in  metaphors  ?  This  common  figure  of  speech  is  de- 
fined as  that  "in  which  one  object  is  likened  to 
another  by  asserting  it  to  be  the  other,  or  speaking  of 
it  as  if  it  were  that  other."  It  differs  from  the  figure 
called  "simile"  because  in  the  simile  a  word  of  like- 
ness is  expressed.  That  which  distinguishes  it  from 
the  simile  is  that  which  causes  it  to  be  less  readily  rec- 
ognized as  a  figure  of  speech.  As  if,  then,  to  show 
that  where  fatherhood  elsewhere  in  the  Scriptures  is 


The  Fatherhood  of  God  259 

used  concerning  God  it  is  a  metaphor,  the  "word  of 
likeness"  is  expressed  in  some  passages  where  we 
read: 

Like  as  a  father  pitieth  his  children 

So  the  Lord  pitieth  them  that  fear  him. 

Even  as  a  father  the  son  in  whom  he  delighteth. 

306.  As  the  primary  meaning  always  essential  to 
real  fatherhood  is  "male  parentage  of  a  human 
child,"  when  the  term  is  used,  not  only  of  the  devil  as 
father  of  men  and  of  God  as  father  of  lights,  but  also 
of  God  as  father  of  men,  surely  the  meaning  is  meta- 
phorical. In  different  religions  the  goddess  has  had 
a  prominent  place,  especially  among  people  who 
recognized  the  mother  as  the  head  of  the  family. 
It  seems  necessary  to  use  some  pronoun  in  speaking 
of  God.  Though,  of  the  three,  "he"  is  used  rather 
than  "she"  or  "it,"  yet,  after  all,  is  God  really  a 
male  ?  Unless  as  such  he  has  begotten  human  chil- 
dren, he  is  not  their  real  father.  Unless  as  such  he 
begat  Jesus  as  a  human  child,  he  was  not  his  real 
father.  Suggested  by  such  terms  as  "first-born" 
and  "only-begotten,"  the  expression  "eternal  genera- 
tion"— the  Father's  eternal  generation  of  the  Son — 
is  most  evidently  a  figure  of  speech.  Surely  for 
most,  at  least,  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  farther.  As  in 
order  that  there  may  be  male  parentage  there  must 
be  female  parentage,  need  we  ask  that,  if  God  be  a 
real  father,  how  about  the  real  mother?  If  the 
immanence  of  God  be  taken  to  mean  that  God,  being 


26o  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

in  all  fathers,  is  real  father  to  all,  then,  in  the  same 
way,  he  has  also  real  motherhood  and  childhood. 
In  times  of  sorrow  as  in  God's  presence  I  have  been 
as  "one  whom  his  mother  comforteth"  (Isa.  66:13). 
I  have  felt  God  was  a  mother  as  well  as  a  father. 
Is  God  a  real  mother?  It  would  not  be  necessary 
to  carry  out  this  line  of  thought  as  far  as  we  have,  if 
it  were  not  that  many,  who  readily  recognize  as 
figures  of  speech  the  representations  of  God  as  shep- 
herd or  as  king,  yet  have  great  difficulty  in  under- 
standing that  the  representations  of  God  as  father 
are  also  figurative.  I  have  even  heard  a  self-made 
theologian  who  was  so  incapable  of  distinguishing 
between  literal  and  figurative  language  that  he 
strenuously  asserted  that  the  new-birth  was  literal. 
Many  fail  to  see,  not  only  how  crass  it  is  to  think  of 
God  as  a  real  father  of  men,  but  also  how  narrow. 
The  term  "regeneration"  is  but  a  figure  of  speech. 
Paul  uses  the  figure  of  adoption.  Regeneration  and 
adoption,  taken  literally,  are  contradictory. 

307.  With  some  there  is  the  feeling  that,  when 
real  fatherhood  is  taken  away,  everything  is  gone. 
If  this  feeling  were  displaced  by  the  conviction  that 
the  figurative  meaning  is  richer  than  the  real,  and 
that  the  reality  that  the  figurative  meaning  seeks  to 
express  is  richer  than  the  meaning  of  the  figure  at  its 
best,  how  much  misinterpretation  and  controversy 
would  be  saved !  The  "  good  measure  "  of  the  figure, 
even  though  it  be  heaped  up,  "pressed  down  and 


The  Fatherhood  0}  God  261 

shaken  together  and  running  over,"  is  still  unable 
to  contain  the  rich  meaning  of  the  reality  of  God's 
relationship  to  us,     Faber  sang: 

The  love  of  God  is  broader 
Than  the  measure  of  man's  mind. 

While  man's  mind  is  limited,  his  speech  is  yet  more 
limited.  God  certainly  is  greater  than  any  repre- 
sentation of  him  in  limited  human  speech.  Kept 
dov^rn  by  the  inadequacy  of  literal  language,  the 
human  soul  seeks  by  figures  of  speech  to  climb  nearer 
the  expression  of  the  truth  it  feels  concerning  God. 
One  of  its  highest  figures  is  that  of  fatherhood,  but 
the  reality  is  higher  still. 

ELASTICITY  OF  FIGURE 

308.  III.  Because  of  the  elasticity  of  figurative 
language,  the  range  of  the  possible  figurative  mean- 
ings of  "fatherhood"  is  limited  only  as  the  power 
of  the  imagination  is  limited.  The  American  school 
boy  can  say  that  Washington  was  the  "father  of  his 
country."  Wordsworth  said:  "The  child  is  father 
of  the  man."  Elisha  called  Elijah  his  father,  and 
was  called  father  by  the  king.  Job  said  that  he  was 
a  father  to  the  needy,  and  that  corruption  was  his 
father.  God  is  the  father  of  rain  as  well  as  of  lights, 
and  he  is  the  begetter  of  the  dew.  If  one  has  imagi- 
nation strong  enough  he  may  stretch  the  figure  of 
fatherhood  so  that  it  would  practically  cover  his 
whole  conception  of  God.     To  this  there  is  no  serious 


262  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

objection,  provided  it  be  recognized  that  fatherhood 
is  a  figure;  and  that  other  figures,  such  as  kingship, 
may  be  similarly  stretched.  Here  are  three  persons 
— a  good  man,  a  bad  man,  and  a  boy  who  is  not  the 
real  son  of  either  of  the  men.  Speaking  figuratively, 
however,  the  good  man  may  be  kind  enough  to  the 
boy  to  be  called  his  father;  and  the  boy  may  be 
enough  like  the  bad  man  to  be  called  his  son.  So, 
speaking  figuratively,  the  good  God  may,  in  some 
ways,  be  a  father  to  those  who,  because  of  their  bad- 
ness, are  called  children  of  the  devil,  A  child  can 
have  only  one  real  father.  Speaking  figuratively, 
however,  the  one  child  may  have  two  fathers;  and 
the  one  man  may  be  father  more  than  once  to  the 
same  child.  God  could  not  be  man's  father  in 
creation  and  also  in  regeneration,  if  we  look  upon 
fatherhood,  in  both  cases,  as  real.  If,  however,  we 
look  upon  them  as  figures  of  speech,  they  may  each 
express  an  important  truth.  The  question  is  not: 
"Which  is  real?"  Since  both  are  figurative,  the 
question  is:  "  What  is  the  meaning  of  each  ? "  When- 
ever we  use  the  term  "father"  otherwise  than  con- 
cerning the  male  parent  of  a  human  child,  the  ques- 
tion is  not :  "  Does  the  term  denote  real  fatherhood  ?  " 
In  the  unlimited  variety  of  possible  figurative  mean- 
ings the  one  question  is:  "Just  what  is  the  meaning 
intended  ?  " 

309.  In  this  variety  some  applications  of  the  figure 
are  more  fitting  than  others.     The  sculptor  who 


The  Fatherhood  of  God  263 

makes  a  childlike  statue  may  be  said  to  be  its  father. 
If  he  should  give  life  to  the  statue,  so  that  in  many 
respects  it  would  be  like  himself  and  capable  of 
loving  him,  the  term  "father"  M^ould  be  more  fitting. 
If  further,  by  means  perhaps  of  another  being,  the 
living  statue  so  increased  in  likeness  to  its  maker  and 
in  love  for  him  that  the  relations  between  them 
become  considerably  changed  for  the  better,  the 
term  "father"  has  a  richer  meaning  and  is  still  more 
appropriate.  So  the  references  to  God's  fatherhood 
of  creation  vary  in  appropriateness,  and  are  not  so 
rich  in  meaning  as  the  references  to  his  fatherhood 
of  regeneration.     In  Browning's  "Saul"  we  read: 

God  made  all  the  creatures  and  gave  them  our  love  and  our 

fear 
To  give  sign  we  and  they  are  his  children,  one  family  here. 

While  the  poet  thus  may  sing  of  even  the  other  ani- 
mals as  God's  children,  yet  the  figure  of  father  is 
more  fitting  when  used  of  God's  relationship  to  all 
men,  who  are  figuratively  represented  as  being  made 
in  his  image;  and  the  figure  is  more  fitting  still  for 
those  who,  through  Christ,  are  made  still  more  like 
God  and  have  closer  fellowship  with  him. 

CARE  IN  MAKING  MEANING  PLAIN 

310.  IV.  Because,  therefore,  the  figure  may  mean 
much,  or  little,  and  sometimes  that  which,  when 
taken  literally,  is  contradictory,  is  not  the  great  need 
simply  that,  when  fatherhood  is  used  concerning 


264  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

God,  the  one  who  uses  it  be  more  careful  to  make 
plain  what  is  really  meant  ?  It  is  important  here  to 
ask  how  much  the  relation  between  the  relative 
terms,  "  father  "  and  "  child,"  helps  to  understand  the 
meaning  of  the  one  from  the  meaning  of  the  other. 
All  we  can  answer  definitely  concerning  real  father- 
hood and  real  sonship  is  that  the  primary  physical 
meaning  of  the  one  necessarily  implies  the  primary 
meaning  of  the  other.  On  the  other  hand,  while, 
from  the  figurative  meaning  of  the  one,  more  or  less 
may  be  indefinitely  suggested  or  naturally  expected 
concerning  the  other,  nothing  definite  is  necessarily 
implied.  A  man,  for  instance,  may  be  fatherly  to 
one  who  is  not  filial  to  him.  Since  "divine  father- 
hood" and  "human  sonship"  are  figurative  terms, 
we  cannot  necessarily  infer  from  the  meaning  of  the 
one  anything  definite  in  the  meaning  of  the  other. 
The  meaning  of  each  is  to  be  determined  neither  by 
the  term  itself  nor  by  a  necessary  inference  from  the 
meaning  of  the  other  term.  While  both  these  ways 
may  be  helpful  in  finding  its  meaning,  that  which 
determines  it  is  the  way  in  which  the  term  is  used. 
The  one  who  uses  it  in  a  discussion  about  it  should 
therefore  be  careful  to  make  his  meaning  plain. 

311.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  figure  of 
fatherhood,  in  both  its  universal  and  its  limited  sense, 
is  legitimate  whether  or  not,  as  thus  used,  it  is  to  be 
found  in  the  Scriptures.  It  should  also  be  borne  in 
mind  that,  as  its  meaning  varies  according  to  our 


The  Fatherhood  of  God  265 

view  of  God,  the  passages  to  be  searched  for  an  under- 
standing of  it  are  not  simply  those  where  the  figure 
itself  is  stated  or  suggested,  but  all  those  that  teach 
anything  concerning  God  in  his  relations  to  men. 
Remembering  that  the  expression  is  figurative,  there 
surely  can  be  no  objections  to  saying  what  to  all  may 
express  more  or  less  truth,  namely,  that  God  is  the 
father  of  all  men ;  but  it  should  not  be  ignored  that 
in  the  Bible  the  great  thought  is  that  the  filialness 
of  loving  obedience  to  God  means  enjoyment  of  his 
fatherliness,  of  love,  communion,  etc.  If  with  the 
recognition  that  divine  fatherhood  and  human  son- 
ship  are  elastic  figures  it  also  be  recognized  that 
the  work  of  interpreters  is  not  to  put  meanings  or 
emphasis  into  the  Bible,  but  rather  to  show  what 
meanings  are  there  and  with  what  emphasis,  how 
much  misunderstanding  and  misinterpretation  would 
be  saved !  My  prayer  is  that  this  irenicon  will  give 
some  a  clearer  understanding  of  terms,  and  thus 
help  them  out  of  the  dark  labyrinth  of  discussion 
into  the  sunlight  of  the  glorious  truth  that  is  figura- 
tively but  fittingly  represented  as  the  fatherhood  of 
God.  I  hope  it  has  been  shown  that  the  difference, 
after  all,  has  been  mainly,  if  not  altogether,  a  differ- 
ence in  the  use  of  terms. 

312.  Is  not  the  same  true  concerning  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity — one  God,  but  three  persons  ? 
Would  it  not  make  for  harmony  if  the  fact  were 
made  known  generally  that  the  meaning  of  the  word 


266  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

"persons"  has  greatly  changed?  The  Latin  word 
persona  meant  a  mask  worn  by  an  actor.  The  one 
actor  could  have  different  masks. 

Modern  thought  insists  upon  the  separateness  and  self- 
included  nature  of  personality — a  conception  unknown  to  an- 
tiquity; and  if  we  claim  that  there  are  three  persons  in  God, 
we  cannot  wonder  if  we  are  understood  to  mean  that  there  are 
three  full  personalities,  like  three  men — an  idea  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable from  that  of  three  Gods.  The  word  persona 
indicated,  and  should  still  be  understood  to  indicate,  much 
vaguer  distinctions.  It  corresponds  more  nearly  to  the  word 
"character"  as  it  is  used  in  the  drama.  In  early  Christian 
discussions  it  was  never  meant  that  there  were  three  modernly 

conceived  persons  in  God,  nor  can  it  now  be  maintained 

There  was  no  such  word  as  "Trinity"  in  apostolic  times,  and 
no  perplexing  thought  of  the  mystery  of  three  in  one.  There 
is  no  indication  that  Paul  ever  encountered  the  question  how 
the  three  are  one.  The  spiritual  and  practical  interest  was  at 
the  front.  Belief  in  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit,  all  divine,  was 
light,  not  darkness,  to  the  eyes  of  the  early  Christians,  as  the 
New  Testament  shows.  The  divine  Son  had  been  among 
them,  the  divine  Spirit  dwelt  in  them,  and  by  both  the  divine 
Father  was  made  real  to  them.     (W.  N.  Clark.) 

313.  In  a  passage  in  Ephesians,  treating  of  the 
work  of  Christ,  we  read  that  "  through  him  we  both 
have  our  access  in  one  Spirit  unto  the  Father."  If, 
as  is  commonly  done,  we  spell  "Spirit"  with  a  capi- 
tal S,  this  text  is  strikingly  illustrated  by  a  paint- 
ing by  a  German  artist.  An  older  brother  is  down 
on  his  hands  and  knees.  On  his  back  is  his  younger 
brother,  put  there,  it  would  seem,  by  the  mother, 


The  Fatherhood  of  God  267 

who  is  lovingly  watching  over  him.  The  father  has 
stretched  out  his  arms  and  is  saying:  "  Come,  come !" 
Aided  by  his  elder  brother,  and  under  the  watch- 
ful care  of  the  mother,  the  little  fellow  is  going  to 
his  father,  and  the  whole  picture  is  one  of  joy. 
Jesus  is  often  called  man's  elder  brother.  The 
Holy  Spirit  has  been  called  "the  mother-principle 
in  the  Godhead."  Through  the  aid  of  God  as  Holy 
Spirit,  and  through  Jesus  as  Son  of  God,  man,  in 
his  childhood  of  weakness,  is  brought  to  God,  the 
loving  Father.  Thoughts  of  the  Son  and  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  help  to  make  the  meaning  of  God's 
fatherhood  richer  to  us.  The  more  we  learn  about 
Jesus,  the  more  loving  and  redemptive  the  Father 
becomes  to  us.  The  more  we  take  hold  of  the  truth 
in  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  closer  does  it 
bring  "Our  Father"  to  us.  After  all,  however, 
the  truth  about  the  relationship  between  the  Father 
and  man  must  be  experienced  to  be  known.  The 
richer  the  experience,  the  greater  the  knowledge; 
and  the  fuller  the  religious  life,  the  richer  the  experi- 
ence. In  our  treatment  of  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  we 
touched  the  question  of  what  Jesus  thought  of  him- 
self as  the  Son  of  God.  Oh,  the  depths  of  Christ's 
knowledge  of  God,  the  Father!  How  unsearchable 
his  experience,  and  his  life  past  finding  out!  The 
Christian  religion  will  prove  itself  to  be  Ike  religion, 
as  it  proves  itself  to  be  that  in  which  this  experience 
is  richest  and  the  result  the  best. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  HEREAFTER 

CUTTING    AND    POLISHING    A    DIAMOND    PRINCIPLE 

314.  In  our  treatment  of  the  question  of  the  here- 
after we  shall  first  notice  the  cutting  and  polishing 
of  a  diamond  principle,  and  then  consider  more 
specifically  questions  concerning  hell,  Satan,  and  the 
larger  hope.  As  mortals  who  today  are  here  and 
tomorrow  are  gone,  more  than  the  miser  loves  his 
gold,  we  long  for  diamond  truths  concerning  the 
hereafter.  We  need  to  guard  against  the  mistake 
said  to  have  been  made  by  Brazilians  who,  in  their 
successful  search  for  gold,  failed  to  see  that  with 
their  gold  were  diamonds.  We  have  the  highest 
appreciation  of  the  rich  discoveries  of  golden  fact 
only  as  we  find  among  them  the  diamonds  of  truth. 
If  in  the  Old  Testament  we  should  carefully  exam- 
ine the  people's  belief  in  the  shades  of  Sheol,  the 
poetic  hints  and  hopes  of  a  hereafter,  and  the  pro- 
phetic belief  in  resurrection  to  retribution  (including 
rewards) ;  if,  also,  we  should  scrutinize  the  extrava- 
gant, inconsistent  views  of  the  Jews  when  Jesus 
came,  the  spiritual,  practical  teachings  of  Jesus 
while  he  was  here,  and  the  queryings  of  the  Chris- 
tians after  Jesus  died :  amid  their  golden  treasures 
what  Kohinoors  should  we  find  to  enrich  our  lives  ? 
268 


The  Hereafter  269 

Our  lives  would  be  blinded  to  a  number  of  lesser 
gems  by  the  brilliancy  of  an  abiding  principle,  with 
its  different  facets  of  application.  The  abiding 
principle  is  that  true  and  lasting  life  consists  in  one- 
ness with  God.  There  were  progressively  lustrous 
applications  of  this  principle  as  through  different, 
and  often  sad,  experiences  it  was  seen  from  better 
points  of  view.  This  Kohinoor  of  truth,  found  at 
first  almost  in  the  rough,  has  been  cut  and  polished 
through  the  experiences  of  the  ages,  until  today  it 
shines  forth  as  one  of  the  brightest  gems  in  human- 
ity's crown. 

315.  This  cutting  and  polishing  process,  though 
to  be  discerned  in  the  life  of  the  individual,  is  most 
marked  in  the  history  of  the  people.  It  is  instructive 
to  compare  the  thought  of  the  apostle  Paul  with  the 
representation  concerning  good  King  Hezekiah  who 
lived  before  the  exile.  We  read  that  after  Hezekiah 
"was  none  like  him  among  all  the  kings  of  Judah 
nor  among  them  that  were  before  him,  for  he  clave 
unto  the  Lord."  Yet  we  read  that,  when  he  was 
ill  nigh  unto  death,  he  felt  he  was  going  "into  the 
gates  of  Sheol,"  where  he  would  be  deprived  of 
divine  and  human  fellowship,  and  would  simply 
exist  as  an  intangible  shade  in  the  underworld  of 
darkness  and  dust.  For  him  to  die  was  loss.  Paul 
wrote:    "For  me  to  die  is  gain." 

316.  What  made  the  difference  ?  It  was  not  that 
Hezekiah  was  in  the  noontide  and  Paul,  "the  aged," 


270  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

was  in  the  eventide  of  life.  The  explanation  lies 
in  the  fact  that  the  good  king  and  the  great  apostle 
belonged  to  different  stages  in  the  development  of 
the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  hereafter.  This  devel- 
opment through  the  centuries,  but  especially  through 
Jesus  Christ  who  "brought  life  and  immortality  to 
light,"  cannot  be  shown  better  than  through  the 
words  of  Hezekiah  and  Paul.  Pathetic  is  Heze- 
kiah's  plea  to  Jehovah  for  continued  life: 

Sheol  cannot  praise  thee,  Death  cannot  celebrate  thee; 
They  that  go  down  into  the  pit  cannot  hope  for  the  truth. 
The  living,  the  living,  he  shall  praise  thee  as  I  do  this  day, 
The  father  to  his  children  shall  make  know^n  thy  truth. 

Exulting  are  Paul's  words  in  prospect  of  death: 
"For  me  to  live  is  Christ,  and  to  die  is  gain.  Hav- 
ing the  desire  to  depart  and  be  with  Christ;  for  it 
is  very  far  better"  (Phil.  1:21-23). 

317.  "For  me  to  live  is  Christ" — that  explains  it 
all.  In  the  famous  words  of  Raymond  Lull:  "He 
who  loves  not  lives  not;  he  who  lives  by  the  Life 
cannot  die."  Paul's  soul  was  enriched  with  the 
diamond  principle  of  immortality.  To  him  its  most 
lustrous  facet  was  the  love  of  God  in  the  face  of 
Jesus  Christ.  His  life  was  "hid  with  Christ  in  God." 
A  German  ballad,  with  two  words  changed,  fittingly 
expresses  what  was  to  Paul  the  truth  about  heaven 

and  hell : 

O  mortal,  mortal,  w^hat  is  heaven  ? 

O  mortal,  what  is  hell  ? 
To  be  with  Jesus  that  is  heaven, 

Without  him  that  is  hell. 


The  Hereafter  2*^1 

318.  Prominent  in  the  message  of  the  early  church 
was  the  belief  in  the  resurrection  of  Jesus.  "What- 
ever may  have  happened  at  the  grave  and  in  the 
matter  of  appearances"  to  inspire  with  this  belief, 
"one  thing  is  certain:  This  grave  was  the  birthplace 
of  the  indestructible  belief  that  death  is  vanquished 
and  there  is  a  life  eternal."  The  life  of  Jesus  was 
such  that  he  could  not  die.  A  bright  lad,  from  far 
inland,  who  has  never  seen  the  ocean  and  its  tides, 
comes  into  the  city  of  St.  John,  N.  B.,  where  the 
difiFerence  between  the  tides  is  very  marked.  He 
sees  a  beautiful  vessel  somewhat  sunk  in  the  un- 
sightly mud  of  one  of  the  slips.  Though  he  sees 
that  valuable  cargo  is  being  obtained  from  her,  he 
feels  somehow  that  there  must  be  some  mistake 
somewhere.  When,  however,  he  learns  of  the  in- 
coming tide  by  means  of  which  the  vessel  will  be 
able  to  wing  her  way  out  into  the  ocean  beyond,  his 
perplexity  comes  to  an  end.  In  spite  of  all  we  have 
received  from  the  beautiful  life  of  Jesus,  freighted 
as  it  was  with  such  heavenly  blessings  for  the  sinful 
world,  we  feel  that  there  would  be  some  mistake 
about  it,  after  all,  if  we  had  not  the  assurance  that 
the  tidal  wave  of  enduring  life  has  borne  him  beyond 
present  human  vision,  out  into  the  illimitable  ocean 
of  God.  This,  in  a  figure,  is  the  great  thought  in 
the  accounts  of  the  ascension— Jesus,  though  now 
unseen,  lives.  The  tide  that  bears  one  vessel  may 
bear  many  more.     Because  we  arc  assured  that  he 


272  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

lives,  we  are  filled  with  the  inspiring  hope  that  we 
shall  live  also. 

319.  From  the  life  of  Jesus  we  do  not  obtain  de- 
tails as  to  the  nature  of  the  life  beyond.  Thinking 
of  his  departed  dead,  the  poet  stood  upon  the  preci- 
pice of  life.  Dropping  over  it  the  plummet  of  the 
concentrated  thought  of  ages  past,  he  sought  to 
reach  the  depths.  He  listened,  but  in  vain.  The 
awful  silence  was  broken  by  the  cry  from  the  depths 
of  his  own  heart: 

Ah  Christ,  that  it  were  possible 

For  one  short  hour  to  see 
The  souls  we  love,  that  they  might  tell  us 

What  and  where  they  be. 

Yet  as  a  dying  swan  the  same  poet  sang  this  sweetest 
song: 

For  though  from  out  our  bourne  of  Time  and  Place 

The  flood  may  bear  me  far, 
I  hope  to  see  my  Pilot  face  to  face 

When  I  have  crost  the  bar. 

From  the  life  of  Jesus  we  are  assured  that  there  is  to 
be  enduring  life,  but  are  not  assured  in  any  detail 
what  it  is.  In  answer  to  many  questions  concerning 
the  "what,"  we  must  answer:  "We  do  not  know," 
"May  be  so,"  "It  seems  so,"  etc.  Adapting  the 
saying  of  another,  we  prefer  to  be  ignorant  of  some 
things  concerning  the  next  world  rather  than  know 
a  good  many  things  that  may  not  be  true. 

320.  The  teaching  of  Jesus  concerning  the  here- 


The  Hereajier  273 

after  seems  to  have  been  practical  rather  than  theo- 
retical. The  one  great  thought  was  that  life  here 
determines  life  hereafter.  He  gets  into  heaven 
hereafter  who  gets  heaven  into  him  here.  Hell  be- 
gins here.  Its  brimstone  is  sin.  Sin  and  hell  are 
correlative  terms — the  one  implies  the  other.  The 
essence  of  hell  is  separation  from  God  through  sin; 
and  the  essence  of  heaven  is  fellowship  with  God 
in  righteousness.  The  way  to  both  and  the  keys  to 
both  are  ways  and  keys  that  make  for  character. 

321.  Throughout  the  Scriptures  heaven  is  repre- 
sented as  God's  dwelling-place,  and  therefore 
heaven.  The  Old  Testament  picture  is  rather  that 
of  a  heavenly  king  on  a  throne  high  and  lifted  up 
above  his  subjects.  The  New  Testament  picture  is 
that  of  a  heavenly  father  who  has  provided  for  his 
children  a  "house"  of  many  rooms.  This  fellow- 
ship with  God  as  "father"  is  one  of  the  brightest 
facets  of  our  diamond  principle.  We  pass  now  to 
a  more  specific  treatment  of  questions  concerning 

HELL,  SATAN,  AND   THE   "LARGER  HOPE" 

322.  What  is  the  New  Testament  picture  of  hell  ? 
We  read  in  Mark  of  "hell  where  their  worm  dieth 
not  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched."  The  word  here 
translated  "hell"  is  one  of  the  three  thus  translated 
in  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  New  Testament. 
It  is  the  word  "Gehenna."  The  other  two  are 
"Tartarus"  and  "Hades."     "Tartarus"  is  found 


274  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

only  in  II  Pet.  2:4,  where  we  read  of  the  punish- 
ment of  angels;  "Hades,"  in  the  New  Testament, 
corresponds  to  "Sheol"  in  the  Old  Testament,  and 
to  the  Old  English  use  of  the  word  "hell"  as  the 
hollow,  hidden  place.  This  is  the  sense  in  which  it 
is  used  in  the  Apostles'  Creed,  where  we  read  of 
Christ  that  "he  descended  into  hell."  The  Greek 
word  that  corresponds  to  the  modern  meaning  (as 
a  place  of  torment)  is  the  word  "Gehenna."  It  is 
made  up  of  two  words  that  mean  "the  valley  of 
Hinnon. "  This  was  abhorred  as  the  place  where 
some  Israelitish  children  had  been  offered  in  sacri- 
fice to  Moloch.  It  was  used  as  a  place  of  refuse 
in  which,  it  is  said,  fires  were  constantly  burning. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  use  of  the  word  in 
Old  Testament  times,  in  the  period  between  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  New  Testament  in  Pharisaic  Ju- 
daism it  became  a  term  which,  though  varying  in 
meaning,  was  understood  to  denote  a  place  of  pun- 
ishment in  the  world  to  come.  As  such  evidently  it 
is  used  in  ihe  gospels;  and  of  the  twelve  times  it  is 
used  in  the  New  Testament  it  is  found  eleven  times 
in  the  reported  sayings  of  Jesus. 

323.  The  belief  in  Satan  and  his  hosts,  developed, 
as  we  have  seen,  by  New  Testament  times,  con- 
tinued with  various  modifications  throughout  the 
Christian  centuries.  It  found  expression  in  such 
works  as  Dante's  Inferno,  Milton's  Paradise  Lost, 
and  Goethe's  Faust.     In  view  of  the  prominence 


The  Hereafter  2 75 

given  to  this  belief,  not  only  in  the  part  of  the  Scrip- 
ture most  highly  valued,  but  throughout  the  subse- 
quent history  of  the  church,  the  comparative  silence 
concerning  it  in  scientific  and  philosophical  Chris- 
tian circles  today  is  very  significant.  It  is  one  of  the 
things  that  must  be  taken  into  account  in  the  ques- 
tion of  the  authority  of  Bible,  Fathers,  Schoolmen, 
reformers,  etc.,  for  the  church  of  today. 

324.  While  it  is  the  head  that  finds  difficulty  in 
the  doctrine  of  the  devil,  it  is  the  heart  that  rebels 
against  the  doctrine  of  eternal  punishment  for  so 
many.  However  much  we  may  minimize  the  use 
of  the  term  "Gehenna"  as  a  figure  of  speech,  and 
however  much  we  way  take  refuge  in  the  substitu- 
tion of  the  expression  "enduring  punishment,"  it 
remains  that  we  have,  in  the  four  gospels,  not  one 
clear  passage  to  show  that  Jesus  thought  of  the 
punishment  of  the  wicked  as  coming  to  an  end.  If 
found  at  all,  this  must  be  found,  not  as  the  teaching 
of  any  particular  passage,  but  rather  as  an  inference 
from  the  revelation  in  and  through  Jesus  that  his 
Father  was  a  God  of  love  and  grace,  and  his  religion 
was  one  of  hope.  Jonathan  Edwards'  awful  ser- 
mon on  " Sinners  in  the  Hands  of  an  Angry  God"  is 
not  rightly  understood  unless  we  realize  that  back  of 
it  was  a  heart  throbbing  with  love  for  man  and  filled 
with  the  high  practical  purpose  of  saving  him  from 
sin.  Similarly  we  do  not  get  the  right  understand- 
ing of  the  gospels  concerning  future  punishment, 


276  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

unless  we  feel  in  them  the  throbbing  of  love  and  the 
earnest  desire  to  save  men  from  sin. 

325.  Is  it  hell  for  the  great  majority?  The  fol- 
lowing pictorial  representation  has  shocked  some 
into  thinking  more  deeply  into  the  great  problem. 
At  the  top  of  the  picture  is  a  radiant  cloudland.  In 
the  center  of  this,  and  enthroned  in  effulgent  glory, 
is  the  heavenly  Father.  In  the  middle  of  the  pic- 
ture is  the  earth.  It  is  represented  as  God's  manu- 
factory of  immortal  souls.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
picture  is  the  flaming  pit  of  perdition.  What  is  the 
output  of  God's  manufactory?  Look!  On  the 
left  an  awful  torrent  of  human  souls  is  falhng  over 
the  edge  of  the  earth  into  perdition.  On  the  right, 
here  and  there,  a  winged  soul  is  ascending  to  glory. 
Are  few  to  be  saved  ?  Are  the  great  masses  of  hu- 
manity but  refuse  (and  O  God ,  for  eternal  burning, 
literal  or  figurative),  and  from  the  great  manufac- 
tory, built  by  God  himself,  is  the  output  only  a  few 
souls  ? 

326.  If  so,  we  can  understand  why  Froude  should 
say:  "Alas:  then,  if  Omnipotence  could  not  bring 
but  wild  grapes  there,  why  was  the  poor  vineyard 
planted?"  and  how  Bloody  Mary  could  say:  "It 
is  fit  that  I  should  burn  the  heretics  here  whom  God 
is  to  burn  in  the  other  world  forever  and  forever. " 
We  can  enter,  too,  into  the  mood  of  an  eminent 
Presbyterian  divine  and  commentator,  when  he  gave 
expression  to  his  perplexity  in  these  words: 


The  Hereafter  21 'j 

Friends  tell  me  that  they  have  been  able  to  find  light  on 
this  problem.  I  have  listened  to  their  explanations  and  have 
tried  to  understand  them;  but  when  I  look  over  the  world  and 
see  millions  on  millions  of  men  utterly  careless  and  indifferent, 
and  going  down  to  everlasting  death,  and  when  I  remember 
that  only  God  can  save  them  and  he  does  not,  I  am  struck 
dumb.  It  is  all  dark,  dark,  dark  to  my  soul;  and  I  cannot 
disguise  it. 

Many  humane  hearts,  yearning  for  a  larger  hope 
and  not  finding  what  they  want  in  the  specific  refer- 
ences in  the  New  Testament,  are  inferring  it  from 
the  general  revelation  that  "all's  love, "  though  "all's 
law. "  Many  are  crying  out  in  a  kind  of  agnostic  faith : 

Behold,  we  know  not  anything; 

I  can  but  trust  that  good  shall  fall 

At  last — far  off — at  last  to  all. 
And  every  winter  change  to  spring. 

327.  We  read  in  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  Luke 

that,  when  Jesus  was  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem,  "one 

said  unto  him :  Lord,  are  they  few  that  are  saved  ? 

And  he  said  unto  them.  Strive  to  enter  in  by  the 

narrow  door:  for  many,  I  say  unto  you,  shall  seek 

to  enter  in,  and  shall  not  be  able."     The  word 

translated  "strive"  is  the  word  from  which  comes 

our  Enghsh  word  "agonize."     This  passage,  then, 

suggests  those  thrilHng  Hues  of  Arnold: 

No !  No !  the  energy  of  life  may  be 
Kept  on  after  the  grave,  but  not  begun; 
And  he  who  flagged  not  in  the  earthly  strife. 
From  strength  to  strength  advancing,  only  he, 
His  soul  well-knit  and  all  his  battles  won. 
Mounts  and  that  hardly  to  eternal  life. 


27S  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

328.  Are  they  few  that  are  saved?  We  answer: 
"Strive  to  enter  in."  We  would  not,  could  not,  be 
dogmatic  concerning  the  number  and  destiny  of 
those  who  have  little  or  none  (if  indeed  there  be  any 
with  absolutely  none)  of  the  spirit  of  striving.  We 
are  helped  by  the  thought  that  they  are  in  the  hands 
of  the  Father  whose  name  is  Love.  This  is  the 
thought  that  is  back  of  the  larger  hope.  We  rejoice 
in  hope  concerning  those  who  strive;  and  in  propor- 
tion as  they  have  the  striving  spirit  do  we  entertain 
for  them  a  bright  and  brighter  hope — a  hope  that 
inspires  to  Christhke  living  here.  It  is  the  hope  of 
Browning's   grammarian : 

That  before  living  he'd  learn  how  to  live — 

No  end  to  learning: 
Earn  the  means  first — God  surely  w^ill  contrive 

Use  for  our  earning. 
Others  mistrust  and  say,  "  But  time  escapes; 

Live  now  or  never:" 
He  said ,  "What's  time  ?   Leave  Now  for  dogs  and  apes: 

Man  has  Forever." 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  CHRISTIAN  LIFE  TODAY 

ITS    POWER 

329.  Our  chapter  on  "The  Hereafter"  closed 
with  the  thought  of  the  importance  of  the  hfe  that 
now  is.  In  the  present  chapter  we  will  consider 
the  power,  the  problems,  and  the  prospects  of  the 
Christian  Life  today.  First,  its  power.  As  a  life  the 
Christian  religion,  though  hidden,  is  not  hke  the 
hidden  talent  of  the  parable.  It  is  hke  the  leaven 
which  the  woman  hid  in  the  measures  of  meal,  like 
the  machinery  in  the  hold  of  a  steamer,  hke  the  dyn- 
amos in  the  power-house  of  the  city.  It  is  hidden 
to  leaven  the  world  for  good,  to  make  for  progress 
on  the  ocean  of  Hfe,  to  illuminate  the  world  with  the 
hght  of  heaven;  it  is  hidden,  yes,  but  for  power. 
What  is  the  nature  of  its  power  ?  We  shall  notice 
that,  while  purity,  righteousness,  and  mercy  enter 
into  it,  its  one  great,  underlying  principle  is  love. 
This,  expressed  in  a  personal  way,  is  Christlikeness. 
The  power  of  the  Christian  life  is  the  power  of 
purity.  As  the  strength  of  Sir  Galahad  was  as  the 
strength  of  ten  because  his  heart  was  pure,  Chris- 
tianity is  powerful  if  it  be  pure  and  undefiled  and 
keeps  itself  unspotted  from  the  world.  It  is  the 
rehgion  of  joyous  power,  as  its  huts  and  palaces  are 
279 


28o  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

homes  for  the  children  of  God  rather  than  barns 
for  the  animal  man;  as  with  it  marriage  means,  not 
Hcense,  but  hberty  to  take  up  a  great  trust;  and 
as  its  adherents  heed  such  injunctions  as  are  given 
in  Col.  3:5-17,  If,  Uke  Lancelot,  the  mightiest 
knight  of  King  Arthur's  court,  it  is  impure,  in  view 
of  the  highest  endeavor  it  will  say  as  Lancelot  con- 
cerning the  search  for  the  Holy  Grail:  "This  quest 
was  not  for  me." 

330.  The  power  of  the  Christian  life  is  the  power 
of  both  justice  and  mercy.  The  Christian  rehgion 
"does  justly."  They  were  playing  beneath  the 
lilacs  under  my  window — Charlotte,  my  neighbor's 
little  girl,  and  her  companion.  The  companion  had 
taken  a  great  liking  to  a  toy  that  Charlotte  had. 
When  a  doll  was  offered  for  it,  Charlotte  quickly 
asked:  "What  doll,  your  big  one?"  So  great  was 
the  desire  for  the  toy  (which  was  in  sight)  that  the 
answer  came:  "Yes,  I  will  give  you  my  big  doll." 
There  was  silence  for  a  moment.  Then  I  heard 
Charlotte's  voice,  in  a  tone  I  hope  never  to  forget, 
as  she  slowly  said:  "I'd  Hke  to,  but  it  wouldn't  be 
fair  to  you."  When  the  opportunity  comes  to  get 
gain  from  others,  and  the  lower  self  "  would  like  to, " 
the  religion  of  Jesus  refrains  if  it  would  not  be 
"fair"  to  them.  The  Christian  religion  seeks  to  be 
fair  and  more.  Because  it  walks  humbly  with  its 
God,  it  not  only  does  justly,  but  it  "loves  mercy." 
It  is  not  only  moral  and  just,  it  is  philanthropic.     It 


The  Christian  Life  Today  281 

dominates  animalism  and  cultivates  a  joyous  altru- 
ism. The  place  that  lower  rehgions  give  to  rites  it 
gives  to  righteousness,  while  to  its  righteousness  it 
adds  what  has  been  called  the  "greatest  thing  in 
the  world" — love. 

331.  The  power  of  the  Christian  Hfe  is  the  power 
of  love.  Apparelled  in  the  majesty  of  simplicity, 
she  sways  the  scepter  of  righteousness,  which  is  the 
scepter  of  her  kingdom.  Of  all  the  Christian  graces 
love  is  queen.  How  beautiful  she  is  when  she  re- 
joices with  them  that  rejoice!  Her  smile  is  full  of 
sunshine,  and  her  laugh  of  merry  music.  More 
beautiful  is  she,  however,  when  she  weeps  with  those 
that  weep.  Her  tear-drops  are  richest  diamonds 
that  reflect  into  the  darkened  soul  the  celestial  Hght 
of  sympathy.  Even  more  beautiful  is  she  as  she 
blesses  them  that  persecute  her,  as  she  blesses  and 
curses  not.  Because  her  heart  is  filled  to  the  brim, 
it  overflows  in  kindness,  even  to  enemies  at  the 
shghtest  touch  of  an  opportunity  to  do  them  good. 
Love  was  the  secret  of  the  wondrous  power  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  early  centuries  of  its  history.  Love 
is  the  secret  of  its  truest  success  today.  In  its  pure 
and  joyous  spirit  of  loving  sacrifice  for  others  is  its 
greatest  difference  from  other  rehgions.  The  Chris- 
tian hfe  is  not  a  selfish  career,  but  an  unselfish 
mission.  Its  one  great,  underlying,  all-embracing 
principle  is  love. 

332.  This,  expressed  in  an  inspiring  personal  term, 


282  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

is  Christlikeness.  We  read  that  the  Son  of  man 
"came  not  to  be  ministered  unto  but  to  minister, 
and  to  give  his  hfe  a  ransom  for  many. "  We  also 
read  that  "he  said  unto  all,  If  any  man  would 
come  after  me,  let  him  deny  himself,  and  take  up 
his  cross  daily,  and  follow  me.  For  whosoever 
would  save  his  life  shall  lose  it ;  but  whosoever  shall 
lose  his  life  for  my  sake,  the  same  shall  save  it." 
The  Christian  life,  however,  is  not  simply  for  the 
imitation  of  Christ.  It  is  for  the  reproduction  of 
his  work.  We  follow  his  example  in  proportion  as 
we  have  the  same  life  within  us.  How  did  that  life 
manifest  itself  when  he  moved  among  men  ?  The 
Gospel  of  Mark  tells  that  he  was  a  carpenter  as  well 
as  a  teacher.  In  going  about  doing  good  he  min- 
istered to  the  body  as  well  as  to  the  soul.  Can  we 
say,  however,  that  he  entered  into  every  department 
of  life  ?  A  modern  poet  overheard  the  heart  of  a 
bereaved  parent  softly  say  in  the  presence  of  the 
Crucified:  "Thy  wounds  were  many,  but  thou 
hadst  no  child. "  Because  of  the  simpler  hfe  of  his 
time,  should  we  expect  his  teaching  to  give  in  any 
detail  a  definite  social  programme  for  the  complex 
life  of  today  ?  We  know,  however,  that  he  did  teach 
some  great  principles;  that  with  personal  purity 
and  altruistic  power  he  did  enter  into  different  de- 
partments of  life;  and  that  the  appHcation  of  these 
principles  and  the  presence  of  this  hfe  are  needed  to 
solve  the  great  commercial,  social,  and  religious 
problems  that  confront  us  today. 


The  Christian  Life  Today  283 

ITS   PROBLEMS 

333.  So  great  are  these  problems  that  many  a 
conscientious  man,  situated  so  that  they  are  pressing 
upon  his  soul,  is  tempted  at  times  to  cry  out  with 
Hamlet : 

The  time  is  out  of  joint ;  O  cursed  spite 
That  ever  I  was  born  to  set  it  right. 

Before  considering  the  different  problems,  let  us  find 
the  problem.  If  there  be  such,  what  is  the  one 
diflficulty  that  underlies  them  all  ?  Those  who  have 
gone  beneath  the  surface  of  the  problems  recognize 
that  back  of  immorality,  private  or  pubhc,  beneath 
the  spirit  of  competition  in  business,  underlying  the 
unjust  distinctions  in  society,  and  underneath  much 
of  the  perpetuated  differences  in  doctrine,  the  funda- 
mental cause  of  all  the  difficulty  is  selfishness — sel- 
fishness of  the  individual  heart.  It  is  manifested  by 
the  cultured  as  well  as  by  the  ignorant,  by  the  poor 
as  well  as  by  the  rich.  It  has  therefore  been  well 
said  that  "all  quick  and  easy  processes  for  regener- 
ating society  without  regenerating  the  individuals 
that  compose  it  are  delusions." 

334.  The  problem  of  problems  then  is:  How  is 
this  selfishness  of  the  individual  man  to  be  over- 
come ?  Culture  is  good,  but  mere  culture  is  not 
enough.  A  man  may  be  very  cultured,  as  the  word 
goes,  and  yet  be  very  selfish.  His  selfishness  does 
not  manifest  itself  in  such  gross  ways,  perhaps,  but 
it  may  be  present  in  even  greater  strength.     The 


284  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

good  manners  of  the  cultured  consist  in  little  sacri- 
fices. Because  of  these  sacrifices  culture  is  good, 
but  because  they  are  little  it  is  insufficient.  Legis- 
lation is  also  good,  but  mere  legislation  is  not  enough. 
Laws  cannot  enforce  themselves.  If  good  laws  do 
not  have  back  of  them  healthy  public  opinion, 
they  may  be  miserable  farces.  Laws  that  would  do 
away  with  the  free  play  of  selfishness  would  need 
back  of  them  strong,  unselfish,  public  opinion;  and 
in  proportion  as  they  had  that  they  would  not  be 
needed. 

335.  Sir  Thomas  More  in  his  famous  political  ro- 
mance described  an  island  that  he  called  "Utopia." 
On  it  was  a  race  which  had  such  perfect  organiza- 
tion that  it  was  free  from  all  the  troubles  afflicting 
the  societies  of  actual  life.  The  name  of  the  island 
is  suggestive.  "Utopia"  means  "nowhere."  No- 
where in  actual  life  has  human  legislation,  organiza- 
tion, or  cultivation  produced  a  society  free  from 
enormous  evils.  They  do  not  eradicate  the  selfish- 
ness that  is  the  underlying  cause.  It  is  possible  for 
man  only  as  through  appropriating  faith  he  receives 
the  love,  the  fife,  of  God.  In  a  Christlike  partici- 
pation of  this  life,  an  incarnation  of  love  which 
means  culture  of  the  cross  rather  than  of  worldly 
wisdom — in  this  lies  the  hope  of  the  world.  As  men 
by  living  union  with  God  have  their  citizenship  in 
heaven,  they  become  true  citizens  of  earth — willing 
to  bear  one  another's  burdens,  and  so  fulfil  the  law 


The  Christian  Life  Today  285 

of  Christ ;  yea,  loving  their  enemies  and  praying  for 
their  persecutors. 

336.  In  the  words  of  others:  "Social  stabiHty 
requires  character,  and  character  requires  religion;" 
"The  soul  of  all  improvement  is 'the  improvement  of 
the  soul;"  "The  conviction  that  the  true  solution 
of  the  world-problem  is  the  religious  solution  was 
never  stronger  than  it  is  today;"  "The  remedy  for 
social  discontent  and  dynamite  bombs  is  Christian- 
ity as  taught  in  the  New  Testament;"  "Talk  about 
the  questions  of  the  day;  there  is  but  one  question 
and  that  is  the  gospel.  It  can  and  will  correct 
everything  needing  correction." 

337.  Having  considered  the  problem,  let  us  turn 
our  attention  to  some  specific  problems  that  Chris- 
tianity has  to  meet  today.  One  of  the  greatest  is 
intemperance.  Let  us  have  gospel  temperance. 
Let  it  be  honestly  recognized  that,  while  the  Bible 
condemns  drunkenness,  it  at  times  speaks  highly  of 
wine  that  undoubtedly  was  intoxicating.  Total  ab- 
stinence is  more  wisely  supported  by  the  use  of 
Rom.  14: 21  than  by  such  methods  as  the  "  two-wine" 
theory.  According  to  this,  Jesus  gave  liis  sanction 
only  to  that  which  was  unfermented.  Such  methods 
are  doubtful,  and  in  the  end  unsuccessful.  What 
are  the  reasons  for  the  strength  of  the  liquor  traffic  ? 
It  is  due  mainly  to  the  drinker's  love  for  liquor 
(its  taste,  but  mainly  its  stimulating  effects),  to  the 
sociable  nature  of  the  saloon  as  a  democratic  club. 


286  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

and  to  the  dealer's  love  of  gain.  The  dispensary 
system  of  South  Carohna,  the  Gothenburg  system 
in  Sweden,  and  the  Norwegian  system  seek,  with 
more  or  less  success,  to  do  away  with  the  last  of 
these.  Coffee-houses,  boys'  clubs,  etc.,  and  various 
substitutes  for  the  saloon,  are  aimed  at  the  second. 
Moral  suasion  is  pre-eminently  the  means  of  over- 
coming the  power  of  the  first. 

338.  Besides  its  awful  power,  the  chief  difficul- 
ties in  overcoming  the  Hquor  traffic  are  the  differ- 
ences in  opinion  among  temperance  workers  and 
the  practical  indifference  of  the  masses  of  those  who 
are  not  intemperate.  What  is  needed  for  uniting 
temperance  workers  and  for  inciting  others  to  the 
work  is  a  better  knowledge  and  deeper  realization 
of  the  meaning  of  the  facts  of  the  liquor  problem. 
In  England  in  1899  there  appeared  the  first  edition 
of  an  influential  book  by  Rowntree  and  Sherwell, 
The  Temperance  Problem  and  Social  Reform.  In 
the  United  States  of  America  a  committee  of  fifty, 
organized  in  1893,  has  published  its  results,  after 
a  decade  or  so  of  investigations  into  the  physical, 
legislative,  commercial,  and  ethical  aspects  of  the 
liquor  problem.  A  study  of  such  works  as  these 
impresses  us  that  temperance  workers  should  guard 
against  exaggerating,  for  instance,  the  physiological 
effects  of  hquor,  and  should  be  wilhng  to  see  both 
the  pros  and  the  cons  of  any  particular  legislation — 
license,  local  option,  private  profits,  etc.     The  deep- 


The  Christian  Life  Today  2S7 

est  impression  these  results  leave,  however,  is  that 
the  whole  world  should  be  roused  to  the  enormous 
economic  and  moral  evils  of  intemperance.  For 
prevention  and  protection  there  is  need  of  strong 
legislation,  with  strong  active  public  opinion  back 
of  it.  For  the  making  of  this  opinion  we  need  tem- 
perance organizations  working  strenuously.  At- 
tractive substitutes  for  the  saloons  are  also  greatly 
needed.  The  greatest  need  of  all,  however,  is  more 
of  the  spirit  of  Him  who  went  about  doing  good  in 
loving  fellowship  with  all,  including  the  pubUcans 
and  sinners.  This  spirit  is  needed  for  the  right 
meeting  of  the  other  needs  in  overcoming  the  liquor 
curse.     We  need  gospel  temperance. 

339.  The  "boy  problem,"  especially  in  the  cities, 
is  a  great  problem. 

Is  it  well  that,  while  we  range  with  Science,  glorying  in  the 

Time, 
City  children  soak  and  blacken  soul  and  sense  in  city  slime  ? 

Surely,  "a  child  has  a  right  to  be  born,  not  dammed, 
into  the  world. "  The  gospel  would  construct  better 
houses  for  the  poor,  and  more  playgrounds  rather 
than  more  reformatories  for  the  children.  It  not 
only  beheves  that  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  better 
than  a  pound  of  cure,  but  it  dehghts  to  dehght  the 
children.  It  moves  the  hearts  of  parents  and  others 
to  say  with  Froebel,  founder  of  the  kindergarten: 
"  Come,  let  us  Hve  with  our  children. "  The  ques- 
tion of  domestic  help  is  also  quite  a  serious  one. 


288  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

The  gospel  does  not  treat  the  helper  simply  as  some- 
thing better  than  a  dog  and  a  little  dearer  than  a 
horse.  Give  me  as  friends  those  like  the  centurion 
whose  servant  "was  dear  to  him," 

340.  The  spoils  system  in  politics,  and  graft 
wherever  found,  are  great  evils.  A  senator  of  the 
United  States  once  said:  "The  Decalogue  and  the 
Golden  Rule  have  no  place  in  a  pohtical  campaign. " 
and,  "The  purification  of  politics  is  an  iridescent 
dream. "  "  Business  is  business, "  as  used  by  many, 
covers  a  multitude  of  sins  of  greed,  chicanery,  and 
perfidy.  We  read  that  the  great  Roman  Colosseum 
was  being  spoiled  by  the  people  to  build  their  own 
houses.  Laws  seemed  of  little  avail  in  checking 
them.  Pope  Benedict  XIV  planted  a  cross  in  the 
center  of  the  arena  and  declared  the  building  sacred. 
The  pillage  ceased.  It  is  for  Christians  to  plant 
the  cross  of  fidehty  and  love  in  the  very  center  of 
poHtics  and  business,  and  to  declare  and  practice 
the  sacredness  of  the  individual  vote,  of  public  trust, 
and  of  ordinary  business.  It  is  for  them  in  all  these 
things  to  realize  that  they  are  God's  colaborers  for 
the  good  of  all.  This  is  the  thought  that  must  pre- 
vail, if  there  is  to  be  a  permanent  settlement  of  the 
great  difficulty  between  capital  and  labor.  The 
fight  that  is  on  will  not  be  stopped  by  a  series  of 
victories  either  by  the  labor  unions  or  by  the  trusts. 
The  great  need  of  the  spirit  of  being  "fair  to  you" 
will  be  more  than  met  if  there  is  enough  of  the  spirit 
of  love,  the  spirit  of  Jesus  the  Crucified. 


The  Christian  Life  Today  289 

341.  The  gospel  would  do  more  for  the  great  social 
evil  than  is  being  done.  In  view  of  this,  and  of  the 
prevalence  of  unhappy  marriages  and  divorces,  it 
would  emphasize  the  sacredness  of  the  human  body, 
of  the  human  soul,  and  of  the  marriage  vow.  It 
would  teach  to  bear  and  to  forbear.  It  would  domi- 
nate the  self-seeking  of  the  lower  nature  and  lift  to 
the  joys  of  self-sacrificing  love.  It  would  make  for 
ever  richer  union  in  the  home.  It  would  also  make 
for  richer  union  among  the  churches.  A  pleasing 
sign  of  the  times  is  the  spirit  of  union  within  and 
between  the  different  denominations — a  spirit  in 
keeping  with  John  17:20,  21.  The  gospel  encour- 
ages one  church  to  say  to  another:  "Let  there  be 
no  strife,  I  pray  thee,  between  thee  and  me;  for  we 
be  brethren.  In  view  of  the  great  need  of  power  at 
home  and  abroad,  in  view  of  the  added  power  union 
gives  to  meet  this  need,  in  love  for  God  and  man  let 
us  co-operate — yea,  let  us  unite.  In  the  name  of 
the  Prince  of  Peace,  let  us  not  fight. "  The  need  of 
union  for  missions  suggests  the  great  problem  of 
missions.  That  suggests  comparative  religion,  which 
in  turn  is  associated  with  historical  criticism.  This, 
with  other  sciences  and  philosophy,  represents 
the  prevalent  spirit  of  inquiry.  The  church  has  to 
face  the  problem  of  the  right  attitude  to  this  spirit 
today.  A  guilty  man  shuns  an  investigation.  An 
innocent  man  who  knows  that  he  is  suspected  not 
simply  courts,  but  asks,  demands  it.  When  its  great 
religious  tenets  are  questioned,  it  is  for  Christianity 


2go  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

today  to  invite,  to  require,  the  fullest  investigation. 
In  purity,  justice,  mercy,  and  love  for  God  and  man, 
it  wants  the  light,  the  truth,  the  foundations  that 
are  sure. 

THE  PROSPECTS 

342.  We  have  noticed  the  power  and  the  prob- 
lems of  Christianity.  We  notice  further  that  its 
prospects  of  solving  these  problems  depend  on  the 
degree  in  which  it  has  this  power.  Because  it  has 
a  considerable  degree  of  power,  the  prospects  are  by 
no  means  black;  but  because,  speaking  generally, 
it  has  not  a  very  high  degree  of  power,  the  prospects 
of  an  early  solution  of  the  great  problems  of  today 
are  not  very  bright.  The  final  correcting  of  all 
that  today  needs  correcting  does  seem  a  long  way 
off.  As  selfishness  is  beneath  all  the  great  difficul- 
ties, Christianity  lacks  power  in  meeting  them  be- 
cause of  its  own  selfishness.  This  manifests  itself 
in  so  many  ways  in  the  lives  of  Christians,  who  need 
to  be  awaked  to  the  fact  that  the  crying  need  of  the 
age  is  not  gospel-preaching,  but  gospel-living.  If 
even  the  lowest  races,  as  religious  animals,  are  "in- 
curably religious, "  even  the  highest  Christians  seem 
still  to  be  incurably  animal.  The  noted  monolith 
in  Central  Park,  New  York  City,  represents  even 
the  highest  Christians  of  today.  Ten  feet  from  its 
base  a  stratum  of  hornblende  extends  across  it  and 
weakens  it.     Be  the  Christian  ever  so  religious,  there 


The  Christian  Life  Today  291 

remains  in  him  this  side  of  the  grave  a  streak  of 
unsubordinated  lower  nature — the  "radical  bad- 
ness" or  original  sin — that  is  not  yet  eliminated. 
The  result  is  that  sometimes  he  is  unable  to  stand 
the  strain  to  which  he  is  subjected  in  business,  in 
society,  in  the  home,  in  the  heart.  Like  the  legend- 
ary flute  that  lost  its  wondrous  music  when  it  was 
incased  in  gold,  the  inordinate  desire  to  be  sur- 
rounded with  that  which  gold  can  get  robs  many  a 
Christian  of  the  sweetest  music  of  religion  and  of 
the  power  to  thrill  other  souls  with  the  melodies  of 
heaven. 

343.  While  with  the  advance  in  civilization  there 
has  been  increased  facility  for  the  satisfying  of  hu- 
man wants,  the  number  and  intensity  of  these  wants 
have  been  increased  yet  more.  While  man  needs 
"but  little  here  below,"  his  wants  are  innumerable. 
The  effort  to  gratify  them  is  the  explanation  of  the 
rush  and  rivalry,  the  stress  and  strain,  of  modern 
life,  in  the  midst  of  which  Christians  are  not 
seeking  as  they  should  the  "shelter  to  grow  ripe," 
"the  leisure  to  grow  wise."  The  Christian  religion 
would  subordinate  the  physical,  and  even  the  intel- 
lectual, life  in  the  life  that  is  hid  with  Christ  in  God. 
It  would  give  a  simplicity  that  would  not  be  nerve- 
less and  lifeless,  but  one  in  which  the  currents  of 
the  divinely  human  life  would  pulsate  with  mighty 
power.  Enthusiasm  would  be  ours.  In  God  we 
should  be  in  the  world,  but  not  of  it — free  for  its 


292  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

salvation  because  free  from  its  sin.  We  should  not 
be  satisfied  with  waiting  to  play  the  golden  harps  in 
the  "sweet  bye  and  bye."  We  should  be  willing  to 
work  with  iron  shovels  in  the  "nasty  now."  It 
is  because  the  church  is  deficient  in  the  strenuous, 
simple  life  of  purity,  righteousness,  mercy,  and  love 
that  the  prospect  for  an  early  solution  of  the  great 
problems  is  not  very  bright.  Why  this  deficiency? 
A  number  of  answers  might  be  given,  each  with  its 
measure  of  truth.  The  conviction  has  been  deepen- 
ing with  me  for  years  that  a  wrong  view  of  the  cross 
is  an  important  explanation  for  this  deficiency. 
When  Christians  sing  of  their  "happy  condition" 
as  "free  from  the  law"  because  "Jesus  has  bled," 
it  should  be  definitely  understood  that  the  freedom 
is  not  in  any  degree  that  of  antinomianism.  This, 
from  two  words  meaning  "against  law,"  in  its  em- 
phasis on  faith  ignores,  and  even  denies,  its  obliga- 
tion to  keep  even  the  moral  law.  It  has  different 
forms  and  degrees.  In  its  worst  form  it  is  expressed 
by  the  lines: 

You  may  rip  you  may  tear, 
You  may  cuss  you  may  swear; 
But  you're  just  as  sure  of  heaven 
As  if  you'd  done  gone  there. 

I  frequently  have  heard  this  erroneous  view  of  the 
cross  expressed  in  a  milder  way  in  such  testimonies 
as  this:  "I  am  covered  with  the  blood.  God 
does  not  see  me;   he  sees  the  blood.     My  standing 


The  Christian  Life  Today  293 

therefore  is  all  right  in  heaven,  no  matter  what  my 
state  is  here  on  earth. "  The  danger  of  this  wrong 
view  of  the  cross  is  not  when  it  expresses  itself  in 
these  forms;  for,  in  so  doing,  it  is  committing  sui- 
cide today.  The  danger  of  this  view  is  its  subtle 
presence  in  such  a  vague  way  that  it  does  not  find 
clear  expression  in  words,  but,  nevertheless,  works 
disastrously  in  preventing  the  Abounding  Life. 
Here,  for  instance,  is  a  deacon  of  a  church.  He 
has  had  an  emotional  experience  of  which  he  speaks 
as  his  conversion,  and  has  what  he  calls  faith  in 
Jesus  as  his  Savior.  Nevertheless,  he  is  not  living 
as  pure  and  honest  and  loving  a  life  as  his  neighbor 
who  belongs,  according  to  the  deacon,  to  the  class 
of  "sinners"  whom  the  deacon  exhorts  to  come  to 
Christ  to  be  saved.  Deep  down  in  his  heart  he 
knows  that  he  would  not  care  to  have  his  own 
record  (in  business,  etc.)  compared  with  that  of  his 
neighbor.  Yet  he  firmly  believes  that,  while  his 
neighbor's  future  is  dark,  if  not  black,  his  own  fu- 
ture is  gloriously  bright;  and  this  belief,  to  some 
extent,  prevents  him  from  being  as  good  a  man  as 
his  neighbor.  Antinomianism,  so  large  that  it  is 
seen  in  its  grossness,  is  abhorrent,  but  not  dangerous 
today.  Antinomianism  widely  diffused,  and  so 
subtly  that  it  is  commonly  unrecognized  and  unsus- 
pected, is  one  of  the  most  dwarfing  influences  at 
work  upon  the  church  of  today. 

344.  It  can  scarcely  be  emphasized  too  strongly 


294  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

that  the  secret  of  the  power  that  is  needed  to  meet 
present-day  problems  is  not  a  nominal  faith  in  the 
cross,  but  an  appropriating  faith  that  makes  us  live 
the  cross.  Then  we  should  be  willing  to  leave 
father,  mother,  wife,  yea  life  itself,  for  Christ's  sake 
and  the  gospel's.  We  should  not  be  willing  to  profit 
in  a  worldly  way  through  representing  the  question- 
able or  erroneous  opinions  of  the  many.  We  should 
be  even  glad  to  suffer  in  a  Christlike  way  for  repre- 
senting the,  at  first,  unwelcome,  but  higher,  truths 
of  God.  Centered  in  God,  we  should  be  eccentric 
to  those  centered  in  self.  We  should  be  willing  to 
be  considered  crazy,  as  was  the  Christ.  We  should 
be  willing  to  take  up  the  cross  and  follow  him.  We 
should  lose  sight  of  self  in  love  for  souls.  By  lips 
and  lives  we  should  tell  them  the  old,  old  story  of 
the  cross.  I  shall  never  forget  seeing  it.  I  see  it 
now.  The  dark  spire  of  the  chapel  is  almost  invis- 
ible against  the  blackness  of  the  coming  storm; 
but  the  spire's  golden  cross  stands  out  against  the 
blackness  as  if  heaven  itself  were  saying:  "By  this 
sign  conquer. "  Would  that  against  the  black  back- 
ground of  the  world's  sin  we  humbly  could  so  up- 
hold the  cross  that  others  would  read  its  heavenl)' 
message.  Would  that  upon  its  golden  glory  they 
would  see  the  diamond  name  of  Jesus,  and  learn  its 
meaning — Savior — and  the  meaning  of  his  life — 
Love!  The  prospects  of  Christianity  depend  upon 
the  extent  to  which  its  adherents  learn  and  live  the 


The  Christian  Life  Today  295 

great  lesson  of  the  cross — the  lesson  of  love.  Well 
might  they  sing:  "Tell  me  the  story  often,  for  I 
forget  so  soon."  Paul  wrote  that  Jesus  said  at  the 
Last  Supper:  "This  do  in  remembrance  of  me." 
According  to  this,  the  Lord's  Supper  is  a  for-get- 
me-not  he  left  to  his  bride  before  he  went  the  way 
of  the  cross.  Whatever  the  critical  questions  con- 
cerning the  origin  and  meaning  of  the  ordinance, 
we  would  strongly  urge  its  observance  today — "lest 
we  forget,  lest  we  forget."  If  through  this  and 
other  means  of  grace  (especially  secret  prayer  and 
meditation) — as  we  receive  cumulative  revelations 
of  sin  and  love — there  comes  into  our  souls  the  very 
power  of  the  cross — the  power  of  love  against  sin — 
then,  then  indeed,  as  far  as  our  part  in  the  solving  of 
the  world's  problems  is  concerned,  is  the  prospect 
bright ;  for  ours  is  the  power  of  the  Abounding  Life 
— the  life  of  love. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

MEDITATION 

THE  RIGHT   IDEA   OF   IT 

345.  Men  may  read  the  living  epistles  of  the 
Christian  life  and  may  come  in  touch  with  the  Chris- 
tian lives  of  literature,  even  the  life  of  Christ,  him- 
self, and  yet  not  have  the  Abounding  Life.  As  a 
further  means,  therefore,  of  knowing  God  who  gives 
this  life,  we  would  call  attention  to  religious  medi- 
tation— the  right  idea  of  it,  the  rules  to  be  observed 
in  it,  and  the  results  to  be  obtained  from  it.  We 
aim  to  get  a  right  conception  of  it.  There  is  need 
of  careful  treatment  here.  Concerning  this  sub- 
ject many  are  without  a  single  thought  suflEiciently 
definite  to  be  called  an  idea.  Many  more  whose 
thoughts  are  definite  have  erroneous  ideas  concern- 
ing it.  We  shall  not  consider  the  different  meanings 
of  the  words  that,  in  the  Bible,  have  been  translated 
by  the  word  "meditation."  Neither  shall  we  con- 
sider our  subject  historically,  and  seek  the  different 
meanings  that  the  different  ages  have  given  to  it. 
We  confine  our  attention  to  the  meaning  of  the 
meditation  that  is  needed  today  for  the  Abounding 
Life.  Instead  of  giving  a  definition  at  the  outset, 
let  us  go  through  the  process  of  making  one.  This 
means  first  to  put  meditation  into  its  class,  and  then 
296 


Meditation  297 

to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  members  of  that 
class.  It  may  certainly  be  classed  as  religious 
thinking.  Even  from  this,  however,  it  is  never  dis- 
tinguished by  most  minds.  Rehgious  thinking  is 
the  large  field  of  M^hich  meditation,  though  very 
rich,  is  only  a  few  acres.  It  is  the  genus  of  which 
meditation  is  a  species.  Reverie,  study,  contem- 
plation, reflection,  and  prayer  are  also  species.  How 
shall  we  distinguish  meditation  from  these  ? 

346.  Reverie  is  common.  Meditation  is  uncom- 
mon. Many  can  sit  for  hours  in  dreamland,  build- 
ing castles  in  the  air.  Few  can  sit  a  minute  to 
meditate.  It  is  so  easy  to  let  the  thoughts  wander 
at  pleasure  from  "Dan  to  Beersheba. "  It  is  easy 
because  it  is  purposeless.  Meditation  is  not  so  easy, 
because  in  it  we  think  to  a  purpose.  Reverie  is  a 
day-dream  in  which  the  mind  simply  associates. 
Meditation  is  no  dream.  In  it  the  mind  associates 
and  compares.  Reverie  has  a  pecuHar  fascination 
for  minds  that  have  a  sad  vein  running  through 
them.  The  glowing  coals  suggest  some  idea,  that 
another,  which  is  connected  with  another;  and  so 
a  whole  train  sweeps  through  the  mind.  We  put 
forth  no  effort  at  reason  or  comparison.  We  are 
satisfied  to  sit  quiet  and  amuse  ourselves  by  watch- 
ing the  procession  pass.  Such  reveries  are  pleasant. 
Yes;  but  costly,  even  if  rehgious.  If  we  do  not 
wish  to  enfeeble  our  intellects,  if  we  wish  to  be  of 
some  use  in  the  world,  we  must  give  up  these  waking 


298  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

dreams.  We  must  not  mistake  them  for  medita- 
tions, which,  while  they  produce  truer  pleasure, 
have  much  mental  activity  in  the  thinking,  and  lead 
to  much  activity  of  mind  and  body  after  the  thinking. 
Reverie  unfits  a  man  for  the  battles  of  hfe.  Such 
was  its  result  in  the  history  of  the  dreamy  specula- 
tions of  the  eastern  monks.  Meditation,  on  the 
other  hand,  nerves  and  equips  man  for  the  fight. 
347.  Study  accumulates  facts  and  truths,  puts  to- 
gether those  closely  related,  and  arranges  all  so 
systematically  and  compactly  that  they  take  up  as 
httle  room  as  possible  and  are  ever  ready  for  use. 
Meditation  does  not  store  up  knowledge  in  such 
handy  bundles,  but  rather  from  these  bundles,  bound 
by  study,  selects  the  truths  it  needs.  Meditation 
commences  where  mere  study  leaves  off.  Study 
carries  the  brick  and  mortar.  Meditation  builds 
the  palace.  The  object  of  rehgious  study  may  be 
no  more  than  to  collect  religious  facts  and  truths. 
The  object  of  meditation  in  using  the  results  of  study 
is  the  building  of  a  godly  character.  When  con- 
templation is  used  in  its  highest  sense,  it  practically 
coincides  with  meditation.  Contemplation,  how- 
ever, commonly  suggests  the  use  of  the  senses  and 
may  not  be  conscious  of  the  presence  of  God;  but 
the  appropriate  prayer  concerning  meditation  is: 
"Let  the  meditation  of  my  heart  be  acceptable  in 
thy  sight,  O  Lord,  my  rock,  and  my  redeemer." 
Reflection,  as  its  derivation  suggests,  is  thinking 


Meditation  299 

upon  what  is  already  in  the  mind.  Pope  wrote: 
"The  learned  reflect  on  what  before  they  knew." 
Meditation,  however,  while  giving  a  prominent  place 
to  reflection,  also  seeks  to  bare  the  heart  for  holy 
influences  direct  from  God.  Prayer  speaks  to  God. 
Meditation  seeks  to  hsten  to  him.  Meditation, 
therefore,  may  be  defined  as  that  rehgious  thinking 
in  which  the  soul  seeks  to  listen  to  God  for  the 
purpose  of  becoming  godly. 

SOME   RULES   TO   BE   OBSERVED 

348.  As  one  of  the  most  important  rules  to  be  ob- 
served in  religious  meditation  we  notice  first :  Medi- 
tate upon  one  theme  at  a  time.  "One  thing  at  a 
time,  and  that  done  well,  is  a  very  good  rule"  here. 
"How  many  can  tell"  from  experience?  Undi- 
vided attention  to  one  thing  is  what  secures  and 
insures  success  in  this  day  of  specialists.  Concen- 
tration of  thought  is  what  secures  true  meditation. 
It  is  not  attained  by  firing  a  shot,  now  at  this  part 
of  the  wall,  now  at  that.  It  is  attained  by  keeping 
the  gun  pointed  at  the  one  spot  until  the  breach  is 
made,  the  seige  ended,  the  victory  won,  and  the  soul 
enriched  with  captured  truths.  Polytheists,  in  wor- 
shiping one  of  their  inferior  deities,  often  worship  it 
as  if  it  were  for  the  time  being  supreme.  In  true 
meditation  upon  even  a  lesser  truth  we  must  make 
it  for  the  time  being  supreme. 

349.  The  energy  of  man's  mind  is  limited.     He  is 


3CX3  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

most  efficient  when  he  concentrates  all  his  energy 
upon  one  thing.  With  the  use  of  snowshoes  we  can 
walk  over  the  surface  of  great  snow-drifts  because 
we  are  not  heavy  enough  to  press  down  the  extent 
of  snow  our  snowshoes  cover.  We  pass  lightly  over 
the  surface  of  a  great  truth  because  we  attempt  to 
cover  too  much  of  it  at  once.  We  think  of  God  in 
a  vague  way — as  Creator  and  Father,  as  omniscient, 
omnipresent,  and  omnipotent,  as  merciful  and  just, 
as  loving,  unchanging,  etc.,  all  combined.  Our 
minds  are  not  able  to  grasp  all  this  at  once.  Our 
meditation  would  be  more  profitable  in  making  us 
more  godly  if  we  would  meditate  on  these  attributes 
one  at  a  time.  We  hear  a  thoughtful  sermon,  or 
read  a  chapter  of  the  Bible,  and  it  does  us  a  Uttle 
good.  It  would  be  much  better  for  us  to  take  only 
one  of  the  truths  expressed,  and  by  undivided  atten- 
tion to  it  to  get  what  it  has  for  us,  than  to  get  no 
practical  benefit  from  the  many  truths  that  have 
been  expressed,  but  all  of  which  we  have  not  time 
and  are  not  able  to  digest.  At  the  same  time,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  some  extent  to  view  it  in  its  relations 
to  other  truths.  Above  all,  we  should  listen  to  learn 
how  it  should  affect  our  lives — in  what  part  of  the 
building  of  a  true  character  it  should  be  set. 

350.  A  second  important  rule  is :  Let  these  themes 
be  practical.  There  are  many  themes  from  which, 
even  after  much  thinking,  we  derive  very  little  good. 
Those  are  the  best  themes  which  produce  the  most 


Meditation  301 

valuable  fruit.  Some  plants  take  up  much  of  the 
gardener's  time  and  attention  and  produce  no  fruit. 
How  often  we  waste  on  barren  themes  the  time  that, 
if  spent  in  developing  fruitful  truths,  would  yield  us 
such  rich  returns!  Much  time  may  be  wasted  in 
trying  to  reconcile  foreordination  with  man's  free 
agency,  and  in  trying  to  see  into  the  infinity  and 
eternity  of  God's  nature.  Meditation  is  to  fit  man 
for  Hfe.  Much  time  spent  upon  such  themes  may 
unfit  us  for  life  and  its  duties.  A  boy  on  a  cloudless 
day  in  summer  Hes  upon  his  back  and  tries  to  see 
the  noonday  sun.  With  what  result  ?  He  cannot 
do  it.  When  he  gets  up,  all  is  dark  around  him. 
It  blinds  his  eyes  to  the  things  of  earth.  After  such 
an  experience  it  would  be  foolish  for  him  to  persist 
in  thus  trying  to  look  into  the  eye  of  day.  By  look- 
ing toward  such  themes  we  do  not  really  see  them, 
and  only  blind  our  eyes  to  the  duties  lying  all  around. 
If,  in  the  selection  of  themes,  we  need  to  be  taught 
by  experience,  let  us  learn  her  lessons.  Christian 
scholars  are  engaged  in  many  speculative  questions. 
They  indulge  in  theories  that  may  have  little  or  no 
practical  bearing  on  Christian  living.  The  medita- 
tion of  the  unlettered,  who  know  nothing  of  these 
great  theories,  but  who  long  to  be  more  like  Christ 
and  who,  with  this  in  view,  meditate  upon  practical 
questions,  brings  more  refreshment  and  greater 
stimulus  to  work  than  all  the  studies  and  theories  of 
the  mere  scholar.     Theories  are  good  in  study,  but 


302  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

in  meditation  the  need  is  for  themes  that  are  prac- 
tical. The  Bible  and  other  books,  the  newspaper, 
nature,  and  everyday  life,  contain  enough  of  these 
to  take  up  all  our  time.  Inexhaustible  is  the  quarry 
from  which  meditation  can  obtain  foundation-, 
key-  and  corner-stones  for  the  building  of  a  noble 
character. 

351.  A  third  important  rule  is:  Seek  and  use  the 
times  when  you  can  meditate  most  effectively.  The 
ideal,  even  in  a  strenuous  life,  would  be  a  hfe  of 
constant  prayer  and  meditation,  because  in  all  our 
experiences  we  should  be  conscious  of  the  presence 
of  God;  but  our  actual  lives  are  such  that  we  feel 
the  need  of  calling  attention  to  special  times  of 
prayer  and  meditation.  We  read  that  "Isaac  went 
out  to  meditate  in  the  field  at  eventide."  As  in 
meditation  there  is  a  shght  contact  with  the  outside 
world,  so  in  the  gloaming  there  is  just  sufficient  light 
to  keep  the  outside  world  in  view.  One  of  the 
psalmists  indicated  the  time  in  which  he  dehghted 
to  meditate :  "  Mine  eyes  prevent  the  night  watches." 
The  shades  of  night  shut  us  into  ourselves.  There 
are  fewer  things  to  be  seen  and  heard  outside,  so 
that  we  have  opportunities  to  look  within  and  to 
listen  to  the  voices  of  our  own  souls. 

352.  In  our  studies,  when  we  meet  with  those 
who  are  versed  in  the  subject,  we  are  often  helped  by 
them;  but  the  rule  for  the  truest  meditation  is  that 
we  be  alone,  at  least  in  that  part  of  it  that  is  of  its 


Meditation  303 

very  essence.  Others  cannot  enter  into  this.  It  is 
personal,  private.  In  serious  thinking  about  our 
own  hearts,  and  in  the  appHcation  of  serious  thoughts 
to  them,  there  is  need  of  self-examination.  This  is 
done  imperfectly  if  others  are  present.  It  is  done 
best  when  alone  even  from  the  dearest ;  and  yet  not 
alone — for  God  is  present.  Whittier  recognized  this 
in  his  address  to  his  soul: 

Stand  still,  my  soul,  in  the  silent  dark 

I  would  question  thee. 
Alone,  in  the  shadow  drear  and  stark 

With  God  and  me. 

Few  of  us  have  learned  to  meditate  "in  the  silent 
dark."  When  the  senses  let  in  no  Hght,  the  room 
is  dark.  Only  when  the  shutters  are  opened  and 
outside  phenomena  are  seen,  is  there  any  hght  or 
Ufe.  We  must  get  some  warmth  and  hght  within, 
we  must  learn  to  commune  with  our  own  hearts  in 
the  silence  of  solitude,  if  we  are  to  get  the  full  bless- 
ings ot  meditation.  Hosea  represents  Jehovah  as 
saying  concerning  Israel:  "I  will  allure  her  and 
bring  her  into  the  wilderness  and  speak  comfortably 
unto  her. "  It  was  when  in  a  cave  alone  that 
Elijah  heard  the  "still  small  voice."  In  the  quiet 
moments  of  sohtude,  when  the  wind,  earthquake, 
and  fire  have  passed,  we  may  expect  it  to  speak 
to  us. 

353.  A  fourth  important  rule  is :  Take  as  much  of 
the  best  time  as  you  can,  probably  more  time  than 


304  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

you  do.  Meditation  means  to  go  to  the  heart  of 
the  subject.  This  takes  time.  Meditation  means 
to  get  the  subject  into  our  hearts.  This  also  takes 
time.  If  it  were  only  a  question  of  bringing  the 
materials  to  its  site,  the  palace  would  soon  be  built ; 
but  it  is  more.  If  it  were  only  a  question  of  collect- 
ing a  number  of  truths  together,  the  palace  of  a  godly 
character  would  soon  be  built ;  but  it  is  more.  Medi- 
tation is  one  of  the  chief  builders.  Let  it  have, 
then,  not  only  the  best  time,  but  much  of  it.  It  is 
not  enough  to  recognize  great  practical  truths  with 
a  nod  as  we  pass.  We  need  to  have  a  walking  and 
talking  acquaintance  with  them,  if  they  are  to  do 
us  good.  If  they  overtake  us,  we  must  make  them 
stay  with  us.  If  we  overtake  them,  we  must  stay 
with  them,  that  from  them  we  may  hear  the  very 
word  of  God,  whose  word  is  Life. 

354.  A  fifth  and  most  important  rule  is:  Expect 
God  to  be  present.  The  doctrine  of  his  omnipresence 
means  for  us  that,  no  matter  where  we  are,  he  is 
there;  his  omniscience,  that,  no  matter  what  our 
peculiar  circumstances,  he  understands;  his  omni- 
potence, that,  no  matter  how  great  our  needs,  he  is 
able  to  help.  The  doctrine  of  his  transcendence  is 
that  he  is  not  limited  by  the  universe,  but  influences 
it;  while  the  doctrine  of  his  immanence  is  that  as 
the  omnipresent  God  he  influences  it  from  within. 
While  deism  believes  in  his  transcendence  rather 
than  his  immanence,  and  pantheism  in  his  imma- 


Meditation  305 

nence  rather  than  in  his  transcendence,  theism  believes 
in  both.  The  doctrine  of  the  divine  fatherhood  tells 
us  of  his  transcendence;  while  the  doctrine  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  tells  of  his  immanence.  Mysticism 
believes  that  it  is  possible  for  us  in  our  meditations 
to  be  conscious  that  the  God  who  rules  over  all  is 
working  out  his  will  within  us.  Let  us  strive  to 
realize  this.  In  out  failures  let  us  remember  that 
he  may  work  though  we  are  not  conscious  of  his 
working.  Though  the  observer  scanned  the  heavens, 
a  comet  passed  unseen,  but  as  it  passed  it  left  its 
impress  on  a  photographic  plate.  So,  in  the  still 
hour  of  meditation,  the  omniscient  Father  may 
touch  our  souls,  and  we  know  it  only  by  the  holy 
impressions  that  have  been  left  upon  them.  We 
read  that  the  disciples,  communing  together,  were 
met  by  Jesus,  and  they  knew  him  not  though  he 
stirred  their  hearts.  How  often,  as  we  have  com- 
muned with  our  own  hearts,  though  God  was  present 
we  knew  him  not.  As  we  call  up  some  of  those 
seasons,  we  can  say  concerning  them  in  the  words 
of  the  disciples:  "Were  not  our  hearts  burning 
within  us  as  he  walked  with  us  by  the  way  ?"  Let 
us  expect  and  try  to  realize  his  presence.  Let  us 
listen  to  his  word.     Let  us  gladly  follow  his  leadings. 

SOME  RESULTS  TO  BE  OBTAINED 

355.  To  help  us  to  observe  these  rules,  let  us 
notice  the  grand  results  to  be  obtained  from  medita- 


3o6  Chrislianity  and  lis  Bible 

tion.  The  first  is:  it  makes  us  see  new  beauties 
and  riches  in  the  Bible  and  other  reb'gious  literature 
and  so  incites  us  to  further  study.  A  passing  glance 
at  beauty  is  not  sufhcient.  In  passing  through  an 
art  gallery,  when  we  see  a  beautiful  picture,  we 
instinctively  look  a  second  time.  A  mere  glance  at 
the  beauties  of  religious  literature  does  not  suffice. 
Meditation  is  the  looking  the  second  time  to  see  them 
as  they  are;  and,  since  there  is  so  much  that  is  thrill- 
ingly  beautiful  and  wondrously  rich,  the  longer  we 
look  the  more  do  we  see  of  its  beauty  and  its  worth. 
356.  Meditation  moves  through  the  Bible  very 
slowly,  and  therefore  sees  more  of  it.  Some  trains 
run  so  rapidly  that  the  panorama  of  the  country  is 
blurred.  Many  excursions  into  the  Bible  are  taken 
on  the  lightning  express.  A  common  practice  is  to 
jump  on  at  one  station  and  to  get  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible to  the  next.  Thus  we  do  not  see  the  beauty  of 
the  scenery  on  the  way.  Meditation  generally  walks 
and  makes  frequent  stops;  but,  while  she  does  not 
go  as  fast  or  as  far,  she  sees  more  and  enjoys  more. 
With  her  one  aim  in  view,  she  paints  upon  our  hearts 
certain  beautiful  scenes,  that  they  might  be  a  perma- 
nent source  of  inspiration  and  holy  joy.  She  points 
out  certain  truths  that  are  already  in  the  mind,  and 
shows  their  worth  until,  as  the  word  of  God  himself, 
they  enter  into  hearts  and  lives.  Because  of  this, 
the  more  we  learn  to  value  meditation  for  the  bless- 
ings she  thus  bestows,  the  more  will  we  study  the 


Meditation  307 

Bible,  that  she  might  put  holy  joy  and  helpfulness 
into  our  lives  by  putting  into  our  hearts  the  Abound- 
ing Life. 

357.  The  second  result  is:  it  makes  our  prayers 
more  acceptable  and  effectual.  Meditation  helps 
us  to  pray  in  showing  us  our  relationship  to  God. 
In  what  is  commonly  called  the  Lord's  Prayer,  we 
say:  "Our  Father."  Meditation  tells  me  that  God 
is  my  Father,  who  is  so  anxious  to  help  that 
"before  I  call  he  will  answer,  and  while  I  am  yet 
speaking  he  will  hear."  God  has  heard  our  cries  in 
the  past,  and,  as  we  meditate  on  this,  we  cry  like 
the  psalmist:  "Because  he  has  inclined  his  ear 
unto  me,  therefore  will  I  call  upon  him  as  long  as  I 
live."  Yet  we  must  remember  that  we  are  not 
"heard  for  our  much  speaking."  As  the  lawyer 
broods  over  the  facts  of  his  case  before  he  commences 
to  plead,  so  we  should  meditate  in  God's  presence 
until  we  are  sure  that  we  want  what  we  need.  How 
many  of  us,  at  times,  are  conscious  that  our  prayers 
are  vain !  The  reason  for  it  can  be  found  in  our  lack 
of  meditation.  By  it  we  become  so  full  of  our  theme 
that  our  pleading  before  God  is  not  a  mere  form  of 
words,  but  the  outpouring  of  earnest  hearts;  and 
such  a  prayer,  said  James,  "availeth  much."  In 
communion  with  God,  listening  to  God  is  meditation, 
talking  to  God  is  prayer.  This  is  more  than  mere 
pleading.  Praise,  which  is  a  very  important  part,  is 
also  helped  by  meditation.     "  My  mouth  shall  praise 


3o8  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

thee  with  joyful  lips  when  I  remember  thee  upon  my 
bed  and  meditate  on  thee  in  the  night  watches." 
358.  A  third  result  is:  it  incites  to  activity  for  the 
welfare  of  others,  especially  for  the  salvation  of  their 
souls.  The  danger  in  a  " strenuous"  life  is  material- 
ism. The  danger  in  a  "simple"  life  is  lack  of 
ambition.  The  need  in  both  is  meditation.  Medi- 
tation turns  our  souls  first  to  God  in  prayer  and 
praise;  then,  to  man  in  work.  In  this  it  differs  from 
the  religious  reverie  of  the  Imitation  0}  Christ  by 
Thomas  h.  Kempis,  where  there  is  little  thought  of 
helping  others  in  their  need.  Because  of  this.  Dean 
Milman  writes  of  the  title  of  that  famous  book: 
' '  Never  was  misnomer  so  glaring. ' '  Meditation,  like 
the  reverie  of  Thomas  k  Kempis,  opens  the  window, 
that  the  soul  might  go  out  of  itself  to  God ;  but  it  also 
opens  the  door,  that  it  might  go  out  of  itself  to  man. 
All  that  is  necessary  to  incite  us  to  work  is  to  cause  us 
to  see  things  as  they  are.  Meditation  shows  them 
in  the  true  light.  Selfishness  is  what  keeps  us  from 
constantly  conferring  blessings  on  others.  The  grip 
of  this  foe  is  loosed  as  we  meditate  upon  the  life  of 
Him  who  was  "the  friend  of  publicans  and  sinners." 
We  read  that  these  words  were  used  contemptuously 
of  him  as  of  one  who  was  hail-fellow-well-met  with 
publicans  and  sinners,  because  he  was  manifesting 
his  friendship  by  eating  with  them.  He  was  called 
their  friend,  not  because  he  was  their  friend  alone — 
for  he  was  the  friend  of  all — but  because  of  the  con- 


Meditation  309 

trast  between  him  and  other  Jewish  teachers  by 
whom  they  were  despised.  In  painting  a  picture 
of  him  as  the  friend  of  the  lowly,  a  French  artist 
appropriately  represents  the  true  nature  of  Jesus  as 
being  revealed  to  some  peasants  as  he  was  eating 
with  them.  There  is  an  indefinable,  indescribable 
something  that  makes  for  friendship  in  getting 
around  the  one  table.  Eating  with  implies  friend- 
ship, because  it  means  fellowship.  What  is  needed 
in  missions — foreign,  home,  and  city — is  not  a 
friendship  that  pities,  but  one  that  fellowships;  a 
friendship  that  comes  into  loving,  personal  touch. 
359.  In  his  history  of  the  Eastern  church  Dean 
Stanley  tells  us  how  the  Greek  populations  were 
isolated  from  the  Mohammedans  that  surround,  as 
are  fertile  islands  from  the  restless  sea.  The  Beduin 
tribes  for  centuries  had  been  passing  and  repassing 
a  certain  Greek  convent,  and  there  is  no  record  that 
it  made  a  single  conversion  to  the  Christian  faith. 
Is  it  not  true  that  in  our  cities  many  of  our  churches, 
because  of  their  situation  and  because  of  the  social 
atmosphere  that  envelops  them,  are  isolated  from 
the  needy  multitudes  that  surround  them!  Is  it 
not  true  that  the  Beduin  of  our  cities  year  after  year 
pass  and  repass  our  churches  without  being  touched 
by  a  loving  hand  ?  A  beautiful  legend  is  that  of  the 
building  of  the  minister.  The  selfish  attempt  to 
build  it  away  from  the  popular  need  failed.  It  was 
supposed  that  an  angel  destroyed  at  night  what  was 


310  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

built  during  the  day.  In  the  work  of  building  it, 
not  for  self-glory,  but  for  others'  good,  as  by  magic 
the  walls  rose,  because  with  the  workman,  in  a  mys- 
terious way,  Jesus  the  carpenter  was  present.  Back 
of  the  work  of  societies  is  the  work  of  individuals. 
"Individual  work  for  individuals"  to  be  effective 
must  be  in  the  spirit  of  Him  who  ate  with  publicans 
and  sinners.  Because  Topsy  felt  that  Miss  "Feely" 
would  rather  have  a  "  toad  touch  her,"  Miss  Ophelia's 
moral  instructions  had  little  influence  upon  her; 
but  she  was  melted  and  won  by  Miss  Eva,  whose 
earnest  appeal  was  accompanied  with  the  loving 
touch  of  human  fellowship. 

360.  In  meditation  upon  the  fatherhood  of  God, 
the  brotherhood  of  man,  and  the  world's  need,  the 
great  "commission"  becomes:  "Go  thou!"  A 
mighty  incentive  to  missions  was  contained  in  the 
awful  meaning  of  the  word  "lost"  as  applied  to  so 
many  millions.  An  increasing  belief  in  a  larger  hope 
for  the  future  of  these  will  not  lead  to  a  lessening  of 
missionary  endeavor,  if  there  is  enough  meditation. 
A  time  of  transition  in  religious  thought  is  a  critical 
time,  in  which  there  may  be  a  going-away  from  God 
and  good  works,  or  a  truer  appreciation  of  them. 
No  matter  how  critical  the  times,  more  listening  to 
God  in  meditation  would  impress  us  with  the  worth 
of  his  fatherhood,  with  the  world's  great  need  of  the 
appreciation  of  this  fatherhood,  and  with  our  duty 
and  privilege  as  brothers  to  minister  to  this  need. 


Meditation  311 

Meditation,  then,  is  the  great  need  in  missions.  It  is 
the  birthplace  of  revivals,  v^hich  should  never  be 
needed,  but,  when  needed,  should  never  be  hindered, 
though  the  frequent  accompanying  and  consequent 
evils  should  ever  be  guarded  against.  Meditation 
makes  for  missionary  success,  and  for  revivals  at 
home  and  abroad,  because,  speaking  after  the 
manner  of  men,  God  then  has  a  chance  to  impart  of 
the  Abounding  Life. 

361.  The  last  result  that  we  shall  mention  is:  it 
gives  increased  happiness.  The  three  results  we 
have  given  show  that  meditation  makes  us  better; 
and,  in  proportion  as  it  does,  it  accomplishes  its  one 
purpose.  In  addition  to  this,  it  makes  us  feel 
better.  This  follows  naturally ;  for  true  happiness  is 
ever  the  handmaid  of  virtue.  Constant  meditation 
frees  us  from  that  which  distresses  the  true  Chris- 
tian— evil  thoughts  and  desires.  These  are  crowded 
out  and  kept  out  if  the  heart  is  filled  and  kept  filled 
with  the  results  of  Christhke  meditation.  "  Fill  the 
bushel  with  wheat,  and  then  there  will  be  no  room 
for  rubbish  and  chaff."  It  gives  us,  further,  the 
pleasure  of  good  thoughts.  If  the  scholar  is  held 
by  thought  in  itself,  if  his  heart  is  made  to  rejoice 
within  him  at  the  discovery  of  new  truths  that  have 
no  decided  moral  quality,  how  much  more  ought  we 
to  be  held  with  moral  thoughts  and  deHght  our  souls 
in  truths,  ever  new,  and  ever  leading  us  to  higher 
planes  of  Christian  living !     Some  of  these  truths  are 


312  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

very  delicate  plants.  They  will  not  grow  in  every 
kind  of  soil  or  climate.  They  will  not  produce  fruit 
without  pure  air  and  good  care.  In  meditation 
there  are  a  removing  of  the  impurities  of  heart  and 
head,  an  enriching  of  the  soil,  and  a  fostering  of 
these  tender  plants  so  that  they  bring  forth  fra- 
grant flowers  and  luscious  fruit  that  dehght  and 
refresh  the  soul. 

362.  The  joys  we  derive  from  the  promises  of 
God's  Word  are  increased  manifold  by  meditation 
upon  them.  As,  when  you  press  the  fragrant  leaf, 
its  fragrance  fills  the  room,  so,  when  pressed  by 
meditation,  the  fragrance  of  these  promises  fill  and 
dehght  our  souls.  The  joy  of  meditation  is  the  joy 
of  seeing  the  cathedral  windows  from  within.  Medi- 
tation feeds  and  fans  the  flames  of  love,  "While  I 
was  musing  the  fire  burned."  No  earthly  joy  is 
comparable  to  that  of  him  whose  heart  is  all  aglow 
with  love  to  God.  The  face  of  Moses  shone  as  he 
came  from  the  presence  of  Jehovah.  If  we  dehght 
to  meditate  in  his  presence,  our  happy  faces  will 
emit  the  hght  of  holy  joy  within.  Ineffable  is  the  joy 
obtained  by  shutting  yourself  in  from  the  world  and 
communing  face  to  face  with  God.  In  view  of  all 
this,  we,  in  this  busy  age,  are  not  meditating  enough. 
The  great  corrective  for  its  materiahsm  is  meditation. 
May  the  consciousness  of  our  lack  of  enough  spiritual 
helpfulness  and  happiness  lead  us  to  this.  Ask  me 
about  the  spiritual  hf e  of  a  soul,  and  I  will  ask  you : 


Meditation  313 

"  Does  he  meditate  ?  "  Ask  me  how  he  can  increase 
his  spiritual  hfe,  and  I  will  answer:  "Let  him  medi- 
tate." Meditation  is  both  a  test  of  the  spiritual  life 
and  a  means  of  increasing  it.  If  he  says  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  meditate,  I  still  say:  ''Let  him  meditate."  Let 
him,  by  an  act  of  the  will,  shut  himself  in  with  God; 
for  he  cannot  long  remain  unmoved  when  he  is  con- 
scious of  being  alone  in  the  presence  of  God. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

MIDDLEMEN 

THE  NEED  OF  MIDDLEMEN 

363.  The  main  purpose  of  this  last  chapter  of  the 
book  is  to  influence  congregations  to  expect  from 
their  leaders,  especially  from  their  clergyman,  the 
important  work  in  which  this  book  seeks  to  aid — the 
work  of  mediators  or  middlemen.  Perhaps,  because 
of  the  theological  and  sacerdotal  associations  of  the 
word  "mediators,"  we  had  better  give  the  preference 
to  the  word  "middlemen."  It  suggests  business. 
They  are  about  their  Father's  business,  in  being  mid- 
dlemen in  the  rehgious  world.  The  question  of  the 
relation  between  the  divine  and  the  human  in  both 
Jesus  and  the  Bible  has  occasioned  much  contro- 
versy. In  their  discussions  concerning  the  person  of 
Christ  theological  leaders  have  often  manifested 
much  theological  heat  and  hate.  In  many  discus- 
sions concerning  the  nature  of  the  Bible  at  times 
there  has  been  manifested  much  un-Christlike  bitter- 
ness. Between  ApoHinarianism,  which  robbed 
Christ  of  his  humanity,  and  Arianism,  which  robbed 
him  of  his  divinity,  there  was  a  great  gulf.  Between 
those  who  have  so  magnified  the  divineness  of  the 
Bible  that  they  have  practically  denied  its  human 
elements,  and  those  who  have  laid  such  stress  upon 
314 


Middlemen  315 

its  human  elements  that  they  have  failed  to  see  its 
divine  riches,  there  has  yawned  a  great  chasm. 
Through  this  there  has  leaped,  at  times,  a  Niagara 
torrent  of  denunciation  against  irreverence  and 
higher  criticism,  and  against  ignorance  and  supersti- 
tion. Pausing  only  to  hail  with  joy  the  indications 
that,  more  and  more,  this  wasteful  rush  of  energy  is 
to  be  expended  in  turning  the  wheels  of  progress  in 
the  kindgom  of  God,  we  turn  away  from  the  troubled 
waters  that  divide,  to  the  grand  suspension  bridge. 
Over  it  may  the  one  side  add  to  its  faith  both  knowl- 
edge and  love,  and  may  the  other  side  add  to  its 
knowledge  both  faith  and  love.  It  is  the  bridge  of 
Christian  education.  Both  words  are  important. 
The  one  side  needs  the  emphasis  upon  the  noun,  the 
other,  upon  the  adjective. 

364.  When  first  we  reaHze  the  great  importance  of 
this  bridge,  we  are  filled  with  sorrow  as  we  think  of 
the  comparatively  few  who  reach  the  school  for 
bridge-builders.  Our  sorrow  is  mingled  with  joy  as 
we  think,  further,  of  the  number  these  schools  may 
reach.  A  great  responsibiHty,  then,  rests  upon  their 
students,  especially  those  who  enter  the  work  of 
preaching,  teaching,  or  writing  on  religious  themes. 
Theirs,  in  an  increasingly  large  degree,  is  the  work  of 
bridging  the  chasm  and  of  diverting  to  the  work  of 
the  kingdom  the  worse  than  wasted  energies  that 
divide.  On  the  one  hand,  defending  the  Bible 
from  its  overzcalous  friends  who  claim  more  for  it 


3i6  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

than  it  claims  for  itself,  they  are,  especially  by 
Christhke  living,  to  convince  the  un- Christlike  student 
of  the  need  of  the  Christlike  life.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  are  to  correct  the  misinterpretations  of  ordinary 
readers  and,  by  proper  methods  of  treating  the  Bible 
and  the  doctrine  of  Christ,  are  to  commend  their 
preaching,  teaching,  and  writing  to  thoughtful 
minds.  They  are  to  be  clear-eyed  middlemen 
between  the  specialists  and  the  ordinary  readers. 
Many  of  the  greatest  speciaHsts  are  the  truest  Chris- 
tians. Generally  speaking,  however,  they  are  not 
closely  enough  in  touch  with  the  ordinary  readers 
intimately  to  know  their  needs ;  and  they  are  too  few 
and  too  busy  to  help  them  much.  On  the  other  hand, 
while  an  increasing  number  of  ordinary  readers  are 
thinking  for  themselves  and  along  the  hnes  of  the 
specialists,  their  information  is  unavoidably  imper- 
fect. Great,  therefore,  is  the  need  of  middlemen. 
Who  are  the  middlemen  needed  ? 

THE  MIDDLEMAN  NEEDED 

365.  The  ideal  middleman,  through  broad  and 
thorough  scholarship,  is  able  to  appreciate  what  the 
speciaHsts  know.  Through  close  and  constant  com- 
panionship with  the  different  classes  of  society,  he  is 
able  to  perceive  what  the  people  need.  He  has  not 
simply  read  about  the  specialists,  nor  merely  read 
them,  but  has  so  studied  them  that  he  knows 
what  they  as  individuals  think  is   possible,   what 


Middlemen  317 

probable,  and  what  established.  By  a  careful  com- 
parison of  their  many  opinions,  he  is  able  to  distin- 
guish between  what  is,  and  what  may  be,  commonly 
held  by  them.  Free  from  the  bondage  of  the  belief 
that  the  truth  of  Christianity  depends  upon  the 
absolute  inerrancy  of  the  Bible,  and  helped  to  the 
very  heart  of  the  Bible  through  the  behef  in  progres- 
sive revelation,  he  needs  no  outside  authority  to 
prove  its  authority.  Because  it  has  so  inspired  him, 
and  he  has  had  such  a  rich  rehgious  experience 
through  its  truths,  he  has  a  direct  appreciation  of  its 
authority. 

366.  His  mental  attitude  is  that  of  one  anxious  to 
be  certain  about  what  is  right,  rather  than  to  be  safe 
from  either  heresy  or  hell.  He  has  such  confidence 
in  the  truth  that  he  does  not  twist  the  results  of  his 
induction  so  that  they  will  square  with  any  theory, 
traditional  or  critical.  He  is  neither  domineered  by 
the  dogmatism  of  spiritually  minded  ignorance,  nor 
infatuated  by  the  will-o'-the-wisps  of  critical  intuition. 
He  can  recognize  the  phantasies,  vagaries,  and  more 
or  less  ingenious  guesses  of  some  of  the  critics.  He 
can  also  recognize  the  worth  of  criticism  in  which 
these  are  often  but  incidental  in  the  pioneer  work  of 
specialists — often  due  to  their  precipitate  haste  for 
results.  He  approaches  the  records  of  the  miracu- 
lous prejudiced  neither  for  nor  against  them.  He 
carefully  examines  the  evidence  for  the  credibiHty  of 
each.     He   appreciates   the   meaningfulness  of  the 


3i8  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

words  of  Professor  Borden  P.  Bowne:  "The  undi- 
vineness  of  the  natural  and  the  unnaturalness  of  the 
divine  is  the  great  heresy  of  popular  thought  respect- 
ing rehgion."  He  looks  upon  conversion  neither  as  a 
wholly  uninteUigible  supernatural  event,  nor  as 
something  closely  akin  to  hysterics.  He  looks 
upon  it  as  something  that,  to  some  extent  at  least,  can 
be  psychologically  investigated.  In  seeking  to  free 
men  from  error,  he  seeks  also  to  free  them  from  suf- 
fering and  sin.  In  the  quest  for  truth  he  forgets  not 
the  world's  great  need  of  salvation. 

367.  Though  well  trained  in  theology,  his  method 
is  not  to  spend  his  time  in  trying  to  prove  the  existence 
of  God.  For  the  most  part  at  least,  he  assumes  with 
the  writers  of  the  Bible  that  God  is,  and  he  speaks 
and  lives  as  one  conscious  of  the  divine  presence ;  yea, 
conscious  of  the  divine  indwelling.  Though  a 
careful  student  of  philosophy  and  apologetics,  he 
does  not  spend  much  time  philosophizing  about 
Jesus  Christ.  Instead,  he  aims  to  bring  men  under 
the  spell  of  the  personal  Christ.  Though  desirous 
of  a  legitimate  popularity,  he  does  not  sink  into  even 
an  entertaining  "anecdotage,"  nor  does  he  spread 
himself  in  superficial  HberaHty  of  speech.  Instead 
of  being  a  mere  "retail  talker  "  in  the  language  of  the 
speciahsts,  having  assimilated  what  to  him  is  the  best 
of  their  thinking,  he  speaks  with  the  weight  of  per- 
sonal conviction. 

368.  With  a  Christhke  love  for  the  people  he  does 


Middlemen 


319 


not  seek  as  a  theological  time-server  to  flatter  them 
with  what  they  want.  He  gives  them  what  he  be- 
lieves they  need.  With  a  Christlike  sympathy  for 
the  people,  without  any  dissimulation  or  dishonest 
compromising  with  what  he  believes  to  be  the  truth, 
he  patiently  presents  it  to  them  as  he  believes  they 
need  it  and  are  able  to  receive  it.  His  words  are 
more  irenic  than  iconoclastic.  By  using  what  is 
common  to  both  the  older  and  the  newer  views  of 
truth,  he  makes  the  transition  from  the  errors  of  the 
old  as  easy  as  possible.  He  aims  for  the  minimum  of 
critical  processes  and  the  maximum  of  helpful  results. 
Nevertheless,  he  keeps  in  mind  that  many  today, 
including  so  many  sabbath-school  teachers,  need 
instruction,  not  only  in  the  matter  of  the  Bible,  but 
even  more  in  the  method  and  means  of  interpreting 
it  for  themselves.  In  all  his  instructions  he  gives 
first  things  first  place,  and  emphasizes  the  different 
facts  and  truths  in  proportion  to  their  worth.  He 
gives  diligence  to  present  himself  "approved  unto 
God,  a  workman  that  needeth  not  to  be  ashamed 
handling  aright  the  word  of  truth." 

HIS  MEDIATION 

369.  His  meditation  in  the  spirit  of  his  Master  may 
mean  for  him  the  bearing  of  the  cross.  If  so,  he 
has  the  assurance,  not  simply  that  God  will  exalt 
him  in  good  season,  but  that,  through  his  mediation, 
men  will  be  brought  nearer  to  each  other  and  to  God. 


320  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Concerning  the  safety  of  the  church  to  which  Kings- 
ley  belonged,  Huxley  wrote  to  him:  "It  must  be  by 
the  efforts  of  men  who,  like  yourself,  see  the  way  to 
the  combination  of  the  practice  of  the  church  with 
the  spirit  of  science."  By  the  efforts  of  such  men 
archaeology  and  the  comparative  study  of  reUgions 
are  shown  to  be  but  means  of  strengthening  belief  in 
revelation,  inspiration,  and  other  great  doctrines; 
because  they  give  these  doctrines  a  broader  base  on 
which  to  stand. 

370.  Many  are  questioning  these  doctrines  today. 
The  ipse  dixit  of  the  preacher  is  no  longer  sufficient. 
Men  are  not  satisfied  to  find  out  what  he  believes. 
They  are  asking  him  why  he  believes  it.  It  may  be 
said  that,  after  all,  these  questioners  are  few.  Com- 
pared with  the  many  in  the  churches  probably  they 
are,  but  they  are  increasing  in  number,  and  some 
of  them  are  of  the  best.  If  they  are  to  be  helped, 
not  simply  to  get  out  of  their  slough  of  doubt,  but 
to  get  through  it,  and  if  large  numbers  of  the  bright- 
est and  best  are  to  be  prevented  from  falling  into  it, 
they  must  have  their  attention  called  to  the  "certain 
good  and  substantial"  steps  through  the  very  midst 
of  it.  This  is  the  work  of  middlemen.  If  once  it 
be  learned  that  inspiration  is  not  identical  with  in- 
fallibility, and  that  there  was  manifest  progress  in 
the  views  of  morality  and  of  God,  there  will  be  less 
fog  and  more  faith. 

371.  In  a  bicycle  tour  through  the  beautiful  seen- 


Middlemen  321 

ery  of  Cape  Breton,  Nova  Scotia,  somewhat  tired,  we 
reached  the  summit  of  "Smoky, "  to  be  richly  repaid. 
Beneath,  draping  the  valleys  and  reaching  almost  to 
our  feet,  a  heavy  vapor  completely  hid  the  sea. 
Above  the  noise  of  the  falling  waters,  which  sounded 
like  the  boiling  of  a  mighty  caldron,  arose  the 
whistling  of  a  steamer  uncertain  of  her  course.  All 
around  us,  however,  the  granite  rocks  and  evergreen 
trees  were  not  only  visible  in  the  clear  sunlight  of 
heaven,  but  were  beautiful  in  the  golden  sunshine 
from  the  cloudless  blue.  Those  who,  though  after 
much  difficulty,  reach  the  height  of  the  truth  that  the 
Bible  contains  the  Word  of  God,  not  simply  in  spite 
of,  but  because  of,  the  fact  that  it  is  the  work  of  man, 
are  richly  repaid.  Emerging  from  the  mists  that 
perplex  their  fellows,  they  enter  into  the  light  and 
splendor  of  the  unveiled  truth  of  God.  To  lead  to 
such  heights  as  this  is  the  privilege  of  middle- 
men. As  we  have  them,  may  we  sing  of  our  times  as 
Whittier  of  the  State : 

Nor  heeds  the  sceptics's  puny  hands 

While  near  the  school  the  church  spire  stands, 

Nor  fears  the  blinded  bigot's  rule 

While  near  the  church  spire  stands  the  school. 

372.  To  the  bigot  the  middleman  says:  Let  us 
not  be  afraid  of  investigation  and  comparison.  Let 
us  not  be  afraid  of  comparative  religion.  Let  us  be 
willing  for  the  Bible  to  be  honestly  compared  with 
other  religious  literature.     Let  us  not  in  our  little- 


322  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

ness  seek  to  defend  it  by  an  unhistorical  and  unscien- 
tific method  of  study.  Why  should  we  be  filled  with 
such  great  solicitude  for  the  welfare  of  that  which  we 
believe  is  inspired  of  God  ?  It  suggests  the  story  of 
the  mayor  who,  in  his  solicitude  for  the  welfare  of  a 
well-armed  regiment,  offered  it  the  protection  of 
four  of  his  policemen  in  order  that  on  its  way  to  the 
next  town  it  might  not  be  overpowered  by  a  few  way- 
side robbers.  The  Bible  is  not  only  its  own  best 
defense,  but  it  will  win  victories  for  truth  and  right- 
eousness. The  more  it  is  known,  therefore,  the 
better.     Knowledge  comes  through  comparison. 

373.  Let  us  not  be  afraid  of  higher  criticism.  Let 
us  understand  what  it  is.  Condemnation  of  all 
higher  criticism  indicates  an  ignorance  of  what  it  is. 
While  textual  (lower)  criticism  aims  to  give  us  the 
original  words  as  nearly  as  possible,  higher  criticism 
aims  to  give  their  authorship,  dates,  etc.  It  is  true 
that  critics  sometimes  come  to  conclusions  without 
sufficient  evidence.  It  is  also  true,  however,  that 
many  conscientious  Christian  specialists  are  now 
engaged  in  this  historical  and  literary  study.  Their 
work  is  more  and  more  recognized  as  a  means  of 
getting  a  truer  appreciation  of  the  Book  of  Books. 
Let  us  not  forget  that  the  critic  most  to  be  feared  is 
not  the  so-called  higher  critic,  but  rather  the  ordinary 
critic  of  the  Bible  as  it  is  translated  in  our  lives.  Let 
not  the  triteness  of  the  expression  that  Christians  are 
the  world's  Bible  rob  us  of  the  appreciation  of  its 


Middlemen  323 

truth.  May  the  interpolations  of  the  flesh  be  more 
and  more  eliminated,  and,  as  a  sure  token  of  the 
Holy  Spirit's  work,  may  the  world  read  in  the  lan- 
guage of  our  lives  and  in  an  increasingly  felicitous 
translation:  "love,  joy,  peace,  long-suffering,  kind- 
ness, goodness,  faithfulness,  meekness,  self-control." 
374.  To  the  skeptics,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
middlemen  say:  We  submit  the  Bible,  as  we  would 
any  other  literature,  to  your  most  critical  examina- 
tion. We  simply  ask  that  you  be  honest  with  it  and 
with  yourselves.  Do  not  confound  a  particular 
theory  of  inspiration  with  the  fact  of  inspiration. 
While  we  do  not  ask  you  to  minimize  the  difficulties 
of  the  Bible,  we  have  a  right  to  ask  you  that  you 
do  not  magnify  them.  Because  through  them  you 
feel  that  you  can  pierce  a  particular  inflated  theory  of 
inspiration,  do  not  therefore  conclude  that  the  Bible 
is  not  inspired  at  all.  We  are  not  only  willing, 
but  are  anxious,  for  you  honestly  to  compare  it  with 
other  religious  literatures.  Beheving  that  "the 
worst  infidelity  is  fear  for  the  truth,"  we  ask  simply 
that  our  Scriptures  be  permitted  to  enter  where  there 
is  a  fair  field  and  no  favor,  for  we  ourselves  want  them 
only  as  they  win  by  their  own  inherent  worth.  Very 
important  is  the  history  of  the  making  of  the  Bible; 
very  important  also  the  making  of  history  by  the 
Bible.  Study  both,  trying  especially  to  get  the  Bible's 
pictures  of  Jesus  Christ  and  its  influence  through 
him.     Then,  as  you  strive  to  live  according  to  the 


324  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

best  that  they  present  to  you,  we  should  like  to 
have  the  honest  expression  of  your  thought  of  the 
Bible  and  of  him.  We  think  you  would  agree  with 
us  that  the  Bible  belongs  to  the  inspired  movement 
of  which  Christianity  is  the  religion  and  Jesus  Christ 
"  the  bright  consummate  flower; "  that  it  is  an  inspir- 
ing supporter  of  that  now  world-wide  movement ;  and 
that  its  authority  is  the  authority  of  truth  revealed 
especially  in  and  through  Jesus  Christ. 

HIS  MEDITATION 

375.  In  conclusion  I  would  urge  the  importance 
of  meditation  by  middlemen.  We  (for  in  what 
remains  I  should  like  to  say  we)  if  any,  should 
know  by  experience  what  it  is.  Rightly  to  mediate 
we  must  truly  meditate.  Our  work  is  to  make 
religious  topics  of  great  interest  to  all — the  most 
vital  of  all  the  live  questions  of  the  day.  They  must 
then  be  full  of  life  to  us.  Sometimes  they  are  not. 
Most  of  us  have  at  times  reached,  in  our  ordinary 
experience,  what  Ezekiel  reached  in  his  vision — 
"  the  valley  of  dry  bones."  For  instance,  after  a 
sermon,  the  feeling  concerning  the  topics  discussed 
(among  them  some  bones  of  contention)  has  been 
expressed  in  Ezekiel's  words:  "Lo  they  were  very 
dry."  In  some  way  they  "  came  together  bone  to  his 
bone,"  "sinews"  came  "upon  them  and  flesh  came 
up  and  skin  covered  them  above;"  and  sometimes 


Middlemen  325 

they  became,  according  to  our  thought,  good-looking 
homilies;  "but  there  was  no  breath  in  them."  What 
was  needed  was  a  meditative  listening  in  the  spirit 
of  Ezekiel's  prayer:  "Come,  O  Spirit,  and  breathe 
upon  these  that  they  may  live."  Only  as  we  have  it 
will  the  Spirit  breathe  into  them  "the  breath  of  life," 
and  they  become  "living  souls"  that  will  go  forth  to 
"accomplish  that  whereunto  they  are  sent." 

376.  Our  work  is  to  feed  the  people.  Paul  wrote 
of  his  ministry  to  the  Corinthians:  "I  fed  you  with 
milk,  not  with  meat ;  for  ye  were  not  yet  able  to  bear 
it,  nay,  not  even  now  are  ye  able."  Let  us  learn  the 
lesson.  Many  of  those  to  whom  we  minister  are  like 
those  Corinthians.  They  are  "such  as  have  need 
of  milk  and  not  of  solid  food."  Let  us  not  think 
our  work  is  done  when  we  have  cut  out  and  carved 
up  a  piece  of  theology.  They  long  not  for  theological 
meat,  but  for  spiritual  milk.  What,  then,  shall  we 
do  with  our  theologies  and  philosophies  ?  Eat  them, 
digest  them,  assimilate  them  ourselves,  as  the  mother 
assimilates  the  solid  food  that  she  might  nourish  the 
child  she  loves.  In  other  words,  we  should  meditate 
upon  them;  for  meditation,  as  it  has  been  so  aptly 
defined,  is  "spiritual  digestion" — the  incorporating 
into  our  very  being,  as  the  bread  of  heaven,  the 
truths  of  God.  The  better  the  digestion,  the  more 
abundant  the  life.  If  the  words  of  our  mouths  and 
the  language  of  our  lives  are  to  be  helpful  in  the 


326  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

world,  the  meditation  of  our  hearts  must  be  accept- 
able in  the  sight  of  God.  Thus  shall  we  have  good 
success  in  our  presentation  of  the  glorious  gospel, 
with  its  revelation  and  inspiration  through  the  life 
and  death  of  Jesus;  with  its  rich,  real  relationship 
with  God,  "Our  Father;"  with  its  inspiring  hope  of 
the  hereafter;  and  with  its  power  for  the  life  of  today. 
"So  mote  it  be." 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  STUDENTS 

These  suggestions  will  be  arranged  under  four  headings: 
(i)  "The  Table  of  Contents  and  the  Index;"  (2)  "The  Bible 
and  the  Pen;"  (3)  "Other  Books  of  Reference;"  and  (4) 
"Questions  and  Other  Suggestions." 

L   THE  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  AND  THE  INDEX 

The  Analytical  Table  of  Contents  and  the  Index  were 
prepared  to  be  used  both  as  aids  in  the  study,  and  as  tests  of 
the  thoroughness  of  the  study,  of  this  book.  In  going  through 
each  chapter,  and  in  reviewing  it,  the  Analytical  Table  of 
Contents  will  commonly  suggest  for  each  paragraph  the  most 
important  question  or  questions  that  that  paragraph  helps  to 
answer.  The  Index  also  should  be  used  in  going  through 
the  book.  For  instance,  in  studying  the  first  paragraph,  by 
turning  to  the  word  "definition"  in  the  Index  it  will  be  found 
to  refer  to  other  paragraphs  also.  These  contain  some- 
thing that  will  help  answer  the  question  naturally  arising  in 
connection  with  the  first  paragraph,  namely:  What  does  it 
mean  to  define  ?  The  nature  of  the  book  is  such  that  the 
Index  makes  it  a  small  dictionary  of  religious  knowledge. 
Let  it  be  used  as  such.  When  the  whole  book  has  been 
studied,  a  most  helpful  exercise  would  be  to  take  each  word 
in  the  Index  and  ask:  "What  do  I  remember  concerning  this 
subject  ?  What  further  should  I  inquire  concerning  it  ?"  It 
is  expected  that  both  the  Analytical  Table  oj  Contents  and  the 
Index  will  take  the  place  that  otherwise  would  he  taken  by  hun- 
dreds oj  questions  designed  to  test  the  reader's  knowledge  oj  the 
contents  oj  this  book. 

329 


33©  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

II.      THE    BIBLE   AND    THE    PEN 

The  only  indispensable  book  of  reference  is  the  Bible.  We 
recommend  the  use  of  the  Revised  Version,  of  its  marginal 
references,  and  of  concordances.  In  the  following  para- 
graphs we  give  references  only  to  some  of  the  most  important 
passages  relevant  to  the  thoughts  of  these  twenty-three 
chapters.  It  would  be  a  profitable  exercise  for  the  readers  to 
increase  the  number  of  these  references.  If  on  the  margins 
of  the  different  paragraphs  they  would  mark  references  to 
illustrative  Scripture  passages  found  in  their  reading  and 
study,  this  book,  as  the  preserver  of  their  own  work,  would 
become  increasingly  valuable  to  them.  A  still  better  way 
would  be  to  make  notes  (including  references  to  Scripture), 
and  to  have  them  arranged  according  to  the  analytical  table 
of  contents.  Perhaps  the  best  way  to  do  this  would  be  to 
use  separate  sheets  of  paper  of  the  same  size,  and  to  put  on 
each  sheet  notes  for  only  one  chapter,  section,  or  paragraph, 
according  to  whichever  way  it  seems  best  to  divide  the  book 
for  this  purpose.  Then,  when  one  sheet  has  been  filled, 
another  could  be  inserted  next  to  it  for  the  continuation  of 
the  notes  on  the  same  division. 

Make  free  use  of  your  pen  in  marking  for  emphasis,  in 
making  references  and  notes,  in  drawing,  in  copying  quota- 
tions, and  in  composing  relevant  paragraphs  and  longer  ar- 
ticles. It  makes  the  work  much  more  definite.  Practice 
drawing  maps  of  Bible  lands  until  you  are  able  to  draw  good 
maps  from  memory.  In  other  words,  be  sure  you  are  well 
acquainted  with  the  geography  of  these  lands,  if  you  wish  to 
understand  the  political,  social  and  religious  histories  of  their 
peoples.  When  appropriate  Scripture  passages  are  not  too 
long,  it  is  well  to  copy  them. 

Chapter  I.  Religious  life:  Jas.  1:26,  27;  Gal.  1:13,  14; 
Acts  26:5;  13:43;  Rom.  7:21-25;  Gal.  5:16-25;  Pss.  22;  23; 
42;  46;  139;  etc.;  Mic.  6:8;  John  15:1-11;  Acts  17:22-31  (Jer. 


Appendix  331 

10:10);  I  Cor.  6:19;  Rom.  8:14-17;  John  17:20-23.  Reli- 
gious literature:  Jer.  36:2,  4,  6,  8,  18,  27,  28,  32;  Luke  1:1-4; 
John  20:30,  31;  21:25;  Rom-  1:1-7;  I  John  1:1-4;  II  Sam. 
1:18;  II  Tim.  3:15-17;  Rom.  15:4. 

Chapter  II.  Misinterpretations:  II  Pet.  3:14-18  (see  also 
1:20);  II  Sam.  9:13;  Isa.  11:6;  Mark  7:18,  20;  Ps.  51:2; 
Neh.  8:8;  Matt.  22:29.  Inerrancy  and  inspiration:  Ex.  24:3, 
4;  I  Sam.  8:6,  7;  Isa.  1:1,  10,  11,  18;  Am.  3:7,  8;  Matt.  5: 
17,  18;  John  10:35  (Mark  7:15-19;  Matt.  8:1-4;  12:1-12); 
II  Tim.  3:15,  16;  II  Pet.  3:15,  16;  Ex.  31:12,  18;  I  Sam.  23: 
2;  II  Kings  3:4;  I  Cor.  10:15;  II  Cor.  1:24;  II  Sam.,  chap. 
24  (I  Chron.,  chap.  21);  Ps.  137:8,  9;  I  Cor.  15:55  (Hos.  13: 
14);  II  Cor.  3:i3ff.  (Ex.  34:33);  Gal.  4:22  ff.  (Gen.  21:10, 
12);  I  Cor.  9:9  (Deut.  25:4);  Gal.  3:16  (Gen.  13:15;  17 '.8); 
Jude,  vss.  13-15  (see  Enoch  18:16;    59:8). 

Chapter  III.  Triie  Bible  study:  Acts  17:11;  Neh.  8:8; 
Eph.  3:4;  II  Cor.  13:8;  Phil.  3:15;  II  John  12;  II  Tim.  4:13; 
John  5:39;  7:17;  14:16,17,26;  17:17;  I  Cor.  2:6-16;  7:40; 
II  Tim.  3:15-17. 

Chapter  IV.  River  territories  and  races:  Gen.  2:14;  13: 
10;  41:  I  (Isa.  23:3);  Gen.  10;  11;  15:20,  21;  Ex.  34:11; 
Josh.  13:1-6;  Isa.  19:23-25.  Babylonia  and  Assyria:  Gen.  11: 
28;  chap.  14;  II  Kings,  chaps.  15-20,  24,  25;  Ezra,  chap.  4; 
II  Chron.,  chap.  33;  Daniel;  Isa.,  chaps.  7,  8,  10,  13,  14,  21,  30, 
31,  36,  37,  39;  and  the  other  prophets.  Egypt,  Gen.  37-Ex.  15; 
I  Kings  14:25,  26;  II  Kings  17:4;  i9'-9;  23:29;  Isa.,  chaps. 
19,  20,  30,  31 ;  and  other  prophets.  Other  races:  Judg.  i ;  I  Sam. 
14:47,48;  I  Kings  11:1-8;  II  Chron.  25:20;  Jer.  25: 15-26;  etc. 

Chapter  V.  Genesis-Nehemiah  (i.  e.,  a  little  more  than  half 
the  Old  Testament) ;  references  in  the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament, 
especially  in  the  prophets,  Dan.,  and  some  of  the  psalms;  Mat- 
thew-Acts (i.  e.,  a  Uttle  more  than  half  the  New  Testament) ; 
references  in  the  epistles  and  Revelation. 

Chapter  VI.  It  is  suggested  that  the  students  mark  their 
Bible  in  a  number  of  different  ways  to  indicate  their  views  con- 
cerning the  dates  and  literary  forms  of  the  different  writings. 
The  writings,  for  instance,  that  are  later  than  586  B.  c.  might  be 


332  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

marked  down  the  margin  with  a  red  line.  Isa.,  chaps.  24-27 
would  thus  stand  out  from  its  surroundings.  It  is  helpful  thus 
to  make  the  Priests'  Code  stand  out  from  the  rest  of  the  Hexa- 
teuch.  A  synopsis  of  it,  given  by  Dr.  S.  R.  Driver,  is  to  be  found 
at  the  end  of  the  first  chapter  in  his  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
0}  the  Old  Testament.  Scattered  throughout  the  prose  there  is 
considerable  poetry  not  printed  as  such  even  in  the  Revised 
Version.  It  is  interesting  to  make  this  poetry  stand  out  from 
its  context.  Apocalyptic  passages  also  may  be  marked  with 
profit. 

Chapter  VII.  Arts:  Luke  12:36;  Ezek.  13:10-12;  Mark  2: 
4;  Josh.  8:20;  II  Sam.  7:1-6;  I  Kings  5-7  (II  Chron.  2-5); 
John  10:33;  Ex.  33:7-11  (see  Ex.  25-31  in  the  Priests'  Code); 
Num.  10:33-36;  Luke  4:16-30;  7:5.  Music:  Gen.  4:21; 
Ps.  150;  Am.  6:5;  Matt.  26:30;  Acts  16:25;  Eph.  5:19. 
Science:  Gen.  i;  2;  7;  Am.  9:6;  Pss.  78:23;  148:4.  Phi- 
losophy: John  1:1-18;  Acts  17:18;  Col.  1:19;  2:8,  9;  John 
17:3- 

Chapter  VIII.  Monotheism  and  individualism:  Num.  21: 
29;  Judg.  11:24;  II  Kings  3:27;  Ex.  20:3;  I  Sam.  26:19; 
Jonah  1:3;  II  Kings  5:17;  Num.,  chap.  16;  Josh.,  chap  7; 
II  Sam.,  chap.  21;  Ex.  20:5.  Hereafter:  Gen.  37:33,  35; 
Num.  16:30,  33;  I  Sam.,  chap.  28;  Isa.  38:10,  11,  18,  19;  Pss. 
16:10,11;  23:6;  17:15;  49:14,15;  73:24;  Job  14:13-15;  19: 
25-27;  Hos.  6:2;  13:14;  Ezek.,  chap.  37;  Isa.  26:19;  Dan.  12: 
2.  Kingdom  0}  God:  II  Sam.,  chap.  7;  Pss.  89:3,  4,  19-37; 
132:11,  12;  Obad.  21;  Isa.  13:6;  Joel  2:11,  31;  Am.  9:7-10; 
Ps.  72:10,  II,  17;  Isa.,  chap.  60;  Matt.  3:2;  4:17;  chap.  13; 
Luke  17:20,  21;  Rom.  14:17.  Millennium:  Rev.  20:4-6; 
I  Thess.  4:16,  17;  I  Cor.  15:23,  24.  Satan:  II  Sam.  24:1 
(cf.  I  Chron.  21:1);  Isa.  45:7;  I  Kings  22:19-23;  Zech.  3: 
1,2;  Job  1:6-12;  Matt.  4:1-11;  25:41;  I  Thess.  2:18;  I  Cor. 
10:19,  20;    Rev.  20:2;    Acts  23:8. 

Chapter  IX.  Son  oj  David:  II  Sam.,  chap.  7;  Isa.  9:6,  7; 
Matt.  21:9;  Mark  12:35-37;  John  7:42.  Son  of  man:  Ps.  8: 
4;  Dan.  7:13;  Matt.  9:6;  12:8;  16:13;  Luke  19:10;  John  12: 
34.     Son  of  Cod:  Gen.  6:2,  4;  Ps.  82:6;  II  Sam.  7:14;  Hos.  11: 


Appendix  333 

i;  Pss.  2:7;  89:26,  27;  Mark  1:1;  Matt.  27:40,  43;  John  20: 
17;  Luke  2:49;  Matt.  10:32,  33;  11:27;  John  10:30;  14:7. 
Su^ering  Messiah:  Isa.  52:13-53:12;  Mark  8:31,  32;  10:45; 
Matt.  16:13-20;    John  20:9;    I  Cor.  1:23,  24. 

Chapters  X-XVI.  The  Bible  abounds  in  passages  sugges- 
tive in  the  study  of  Part  III,  but,  because  references  to  them 
would  need  more  or  less  explanation,  we  must  leave  the  collect- 
ing and  selecting  of  them  to  the  students  themselves. 

Chapter  XVII.  Rom.  1:16;  Acts  13:16,  26,  43  (Matt.  23: 
15);  Rom.  16:3-16;  I  Cor.  1:23;  II  Tim.  1:12;  I  Tim.  i:ii. 
Salvation:  Ex.  14:13;  Luke  1:69,  71,  77;  Acts  13:26;  I  Pet.  i: 
5;  Mark  10:30;  John  3:15,  16;  I  Thess.  5:9,  10;  Rom.  5:9, 
10;  I  Cor.  1:18;  Eph.  2:8.  Faith:  Matt.  8:10,  26;  9:29; 
Luke  15:22;  I  John  5:4,  5;  Acts  6:5,  7  (Jude  3:20);  Acts  16: 
31;  Rom.  1:17;  3:22-28;  5:1,  2,  10,  11-13;  Eph.  2:8-10; 
Heb.  11;  Jas.  2:14-26  (Rom.  4:5);  I  John  5:4,  5.  Everyone: 
John  3:16;  Rom.  3:22;  10:11-13.  Power  and  Love:  I  Thess. 
1:5;  I  Cor.  1:18,  24;  2:4,  5;  I  John  3:1;  4:8;  I  Cor.  13; 
John    10:10. 

Chapter  XVIII.  Matt.  1:21;  chaps.  21-27;  Mark,  chaps. 
11-15;  Luke,  chaps.  19-23;  John,  chaps.  12-19;  Rom.  5:10; 
Eph.  2:16;  Col.  1:20;  Matt.  20:28;  I  Tim.  2:5,  6.  Figura- 
tive references:  I  John  1:7  (John  6:56);  I  John  2:2;  4:10; 
Rom.  3:25,  26;  Lev.  1:4;  4:20;  17:11;  Isa.  1:10-17;  -^^n.  5: 
21-27;  Mic.  6:6-8;  John  1:29;  I  Cor.  5:7;  6:20;  Eph.  5:2; 
Heb.  9:13,  14,  22,  26,  28;  10:3,  4;  I  Pet.  1:18,  19.  Revela- 
tion 0}  sin  and  love:  John  i:ii;  Acts  2:23;  3:13-19;  Rom.  4: 
25;  8:3;  Gal.  1:4;  Rom.  3:25  (i:i8ff.;  I  John  3:4,  5);  Rom. 
5:5-8;  Eph.  3:19;  John  3:16;  I  John  4:9,  10;  Rom.  8:39. 
Life  in  view  of:  Eph.  5:25-27;  Col.  1:21,  22;  Titus  2:14; 
I  Pet.  2:21-24;  I  John  1:9;  II  Cor.  5:14-16;  Eph.  5:2;  John 
12:32;    Luke  9:22-24. 

Chapter  XIX.  Mai.  3:6;  Jas.  1:17;  Eph.  3:5;  John  8: 
42-44;  Matt.  6:9.  Figurative  language:  Ps.  23:1;  Isa.  54:5; 
66:13;  Eph.  3:14,  15;  Ps.  103:13;  Prov.  3:12;  Col.  1:15; 
John  3:16;  3:3-6;  Rom.  8:14-17;  Gal.  4:4-7.  Elasticity  of 
figure:  II  Kings  2:12;  6:21;  Job  29:16;   17:14;  38:28;  Jas.  i: 


334  Christianity  and  Its  Bibte 

17;  references  under  Son  of  God  for  Chapter  IX.  Trinity: 
Matt.  3:16,  17;  28:19;  II  Cor.  13:14  (I  John  5:7  of  A.  V.  is 
omitted  from  R.  V.);  John  5:32,  37;  14:26;  15:26;  Gal.  4:6; 
I  Pet  1:2;  Eph.  2:18. 

Chapter  XX.  II  Kings  18:3-7;  Isa.  38;  in  chapter  VIII 
references  under  Hereafter.  Matt.  28;  Mark  16;  Luke  23,  24; 
John  20,  21;  Acts  17:18,  32;  Rom.  1:4;  6:3-11;  I  Cor.  15: 
14,  17;  II  Cor.  13:4;  Phil.  3:10,  11;  I  Thess.  4:14;  I  Pet.  i: 
3;  Matt.  25:31-46;  I  Thess.  1:10;  Col.  3:3;  Ps.  11:4;  Isa.  6: 
i;  John  14:2;  II  Pet.  2:4;  Matt.  16:18;  Luke  16:23;  Matt. 
23:33;  Mark  9:43-48;  Luke  13:22-30;  John  5:28,  29;  Acts 
24:15;    Eph.  1:9,  10. 

Chapter  XXI.  Nature  of  Christianity's  power:  Jas.  1:27; 
3:15-18;  Col.  3:5-17;  I  Pet.  1:14-17;  Mic.  6:8;  II  Tim.  i: 
7;  Matt.  5:43-48;  Prov.  15:17;  Luke  7:47;  John  21:15-17; 
Rom.  12:9,  10;  13:9,  10;  I  Cor.,  chap.  13;  Gal.  5:6,  13,  22; 
I  John.  Christlikeness:  John  11:36;  15:12;  Eph.  5:2;  Luke 
9:23;  Mark  6:3;  Acts  10:38.  The  Problem:  II  Tim.  3:2; 
Phil.  2:21  (I  Cor.  10:24;  13:5;  Phil.  3:20).  Temperance: 
Gen.  9:21,  24;  Judg.  9:13;  Ps.  104:15;  Prov.  31:6;  Rom.  14: 
20,  21;  I  Cor.  10:23-11:1;  Matt.  11:19;  Titus  2:14.  Other 
problems:  Deut.  11:18-21;  Prov.  22:6;  29:15;  Matt.  11:16, 
17;  19:13,  14;  11  Tim.  1:5;  3:15;  Eph.  6:1-9;  Luke  7:2; 
Prov.  ii:i;  Luke  3:11-14;  19:8;  I  Tim.  6:10;  Acts  24:17,  26; 
Matt.  19:3-12;  Heb.  13:4;  Gen.  13:7,  8;  John  17:20,21;  Rom. 
1:18.  Antinomianism,  etc.:  John  6:29;  Eph.  2:8,  9;  Rom.  4:4, 
5;  6:  1-23;  12:1,  2;  Jas.  2:14-26;  I  Pet.  1:14;  II  Cor.  6:17; 
I  Cor,  11:25;  Matt.  6:6;    John  10:10. 

Chapter  XXII.  Gen.  24:63;  Josh.  1:8;  Pss.  1:2;  5:1; 
19:14;  49:3;  63:6;  77:12;  104:34;  119:15,  23,  48,  78,  97,  99, 
148;  143:5;  Phil.  4:8;  Hos.  2:14;  I  Kings  19:12;  Luke  24: 
32;   Ps.  116:1,  2;   Matt.  9:11;   28:19,  20;   Ex.  34:29. 

Chapter  XXIII.  II  Tim.  2:14,  15,  23;  I  Cor.  1:10-12; 
I  Tim.  6:3-5;  Titus  3:9;  Gal.  5:22;  Ezra,  vs.  37;  I  Cor.  3:1,  2; 
Heb.  5:12-14;  II  Cor.  1:24;  4:2;  13:8;  Rom.  1:14-16;  I  Cor. 
13:11-13. 


Appendix  335 

ni.      OTHER  BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE 

Probably  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  and  a  good 
general  history  of  the  church  would  give  enough  of  the  best 
reading  profitably  to  occupy  the  time  of  those  for  whom  this 
book  has  been  written.  Prominent  in  the  extensive  literature 
that  might  be  consulted  are: 

The  Bible,  lis  Origin  and  Nature.     By  M.  Dods. 

The  Use  of  the  Scriptures  in  Theology.      By  W.  N.  Clarke. 

Bampton  Lectures  on  Inspiration.     By  W.  Sanday. 

Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land.     By.  G  A.  Smith. 

History  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria.  By  G.  S.  Goodspeed;  R.  W. 
Rogers  (2  vols.). 

History  of  Egypt.     By  J.  H.  Breasted. 

Early  History  of  Syria  and  Palestine.     By  L.  B.  Baton. 

History  of  Hebrew  and  Jewish  People  (3  vols.).  By  C.  F. 
Kent. 

Old  Testament  History.    By  H.  P.  Smith. 

History,  Prophecy  and  the  Monuments  (3  vols.).  By  J.  F. 
McCurdy. 

History  of  the  Maccabean  and  Roman  Periods.  By  J.  S. 
Riggs. 

History  of  New  Testament  Times  in  Palestine.  By  S.  Ma- 
thews. 

The  Apostolic  Age.     By  G.  H.  Gilbert;   A.  C.  McGiffert. 

The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire.     By  W.  M.  Ramsay. 

A  Guide  to  Biblical  Study.     By  A.  S.  Peake. 

Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament.  By  J.  E.  McFadyen;  S. 
R.  Driver. 

The  Problem  of  the  Old  Testament.     By  J.  Orr. 

Introduction  to  the  New  Testament.  By  M.  Dods;  B.  W. 
Bacon;   et  al. 

Harmony  of  the  Gospels.  By  W.  A.  Stevens  and  E.  D.  Burton. 

Life  of  Christ.     By  W.  Sanday;  E.  D.  Burton  and  S.  Mathews. 

Life  of  Paul.  By  E.  D.  Burton;  G.  H.  Gilbert;  W.  M. 
Ramsay;   et  al. 

Theology  of  the  Old  Testament.  By  H.  Schultz;  W.  H. 
Bennett;    et  al. 


336  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Theology  0}  the  New  Testament.  By  W.  F.  Adeney;  E.  P. 
Gould;    G.  B.  Stevens. 

Commentaries.     In  New  Century  Bible;  etc. 

General  History  of  the  Church.  By  J.  W.  Moncrief ;  G.  P. 
Fisher;    A.  J.  Newman;    J.  H.  Kurtz;    P.  Schaff. 

The  Life  0}  Our  Lord  in  Art.     By  E.  M.  Hurll. 

Sacred  and  Legendary  Art.     By  Mrs.  Jamieson. 

History  0}  Warfare  of  Science  with  Theology  (2  vols.).  By 
A.  D.  White. 

History  of  Philosophy.  By  A.  Schwegler;  Ueberweg;  Windel- 
band;   et  al. 

History  of  Doctrine.     By  G.  P.  Fisher. 

What  Is  Christianity  ?     By  A.  Harnack. 

Outlines  of  Theology.     By  W.  N.  Clarke. 

Christian  Belief  Interpreted  by  Christian  Experience.  By  C. 
C.  Hall. 

Christian  Ethics.     By  N.  Smyth. 

Social  Teachings  of  Jesus.     By  S.  Mathews. 

The  Christian  Pastor  and  the  Working  Church.  By  W. 
Gladden. 

In  Relief  of  Doubt.     By  R.  E.  Welsh. 

A  word  about  the  use  of  these  books  in  connection  with 
"Christianity  and  its  Bible":  It  will  be  easier  for  the  average 
reader  to  obtain  and  retain  the  rich  stores  of  information  in 
these  reference  books  if,  before  consulting  them,  he  reads 
(though  rapidly)  the  whole  course  as  given  in  this  textbook. 
If  their  riches  should  prevent  a  mastery  of  this  outline  study, 
its  one  chief  purpose  may  be  thwarted — in  a  vague  idea  of 
much  there  may  be  clear  definite  ideas  of  little. 

IV.      QUESTIONS  AND  OTHER  SUGGESTIONS 

The  purpose  of  these  questions  and  suggestions  is  not 
mainly  to  test  the  reader's  knowledge  of  the  contents  of  this 
book.  As  has  been  stated  already,  the  Table  of  Contents 
and  the  Index  were  prepared  for  that  purpose.  The  main 
purpose  of  the  following  questions  and  suggestions  is  to  stimu- 


Appendix  337 

late  to  further  study  and  meditation  concerning  the  religious 
themes  of  which  Christianity  and  Its  Bible  treats.  Let  the 
questions  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  be  answered  in  writing. 

PART  I 
Chapter  I 

RELIGIOUS   LIFE   AND   LITERATURE 

Is  the  aim  of  Part  I  of  sufficient  importance  to  require 
three  of  the  twenty-three  chapters  ?  Discuss  the  place  given 
to  the  Bible  in  the  title  of  the  book. 

2.  *Make  a  collection  of  attempts  at  defining  religion,  and 
arrange  them  in  the  order  of  their  worth.  *Make  an  attempt 
yourself. 

3.  *What  are  some  of  the  attempts  at  defining  life  ?  *At 
defining  God? 

4.  What  is  the  relation  between  religion  and  theology? 
What  are  the  sources  of  theology  ? 

5.  What  is  the  relation  between  religion  and  morality  ? 

6.  Give  examples  of  the  effect  of  religious  life  and  of  reli- 
gious literature  upon  each  other. 

7.  What  to  you  are  the  best  twenty  comparatively  short 
passages  in  the  Bible  ?  The  best  ten  such  passages  ?  The 
best  one  ? 

8.  *What  are  some  of  the  best  passages  of  other  specially 
sacred  writings  ? 

9.  *What  are  some  of  the  best  passages  in  other  religious 
writings  not  specially  sacred  ? 

10.  How  do  the  least  valuable  passages  in  the  Bible  com- 
pare with  the  best  in  other  religious  writings,  including  other 
specially  sacred  writings  ? 

11.  *What  arguments  are  given  in  support  of  the  claim 
that  the  Bible  is  superior  to  all  other  writings  ?  Which  is  the 
strongest  ? 


338  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Chapter  II 

INTERPRETATION  AND  LNSPIRATION 

1.  Illustrate  further  the  five  classes  of  misinterpretations 
spoken  of  in  this  chapter.  If  you  think  of  other  classes,  name 
and  illustrate  them. 

2.  How  serious  are  the  evils  of  misinterpretation,  and 
which  is  the  greatest? 

3.  *Collect  and  classify  quotations  from  eminent  scholars 
concerning  the  questions  of  the  inerrancy  and  the  inspiration 
of  the  Bible. 

4.  Speaking  generally,  is  there  considerable  difference  be- 
tween the  quotations  that  are  from  earlier  and  those  that  are 
from  more  recent  Christian  scholarship  ?  If  so,  how  is  it  to 
be  explained? 

5.  *Make  a  collection  of  claims  for  inspiration  in  religious 
literature  other  than  the  Bible. 

6.  *According  to  the  gospels  what  was  Christ's  attitude  to 
the  Old  Testament  writings  ? 

7.  What  authority  today  have  the  records  of  Christ's  say- 
ings concerning  these  writings  ?  Have  Luke  2:40,  52;  Matt. 
24:25,  26;  and  Mark  11: 13  any  bearing  upon  this  question  ? 

8.  Has  the  church  today  the  right  to  add  to,  or  subtract 
from,  the  canon  ?    State  the  reasons  for  your  answer. 

9.  *What  is  your  own  view  concerning  the  question  of  the 
inspiration  of  the  Bible?  and  of  other  writings?  Give 
reasons  for  your  views. 

Chapter  III 

TRUEST  BIBLE   STUDY 

1.  *What  is  the  relation  between  facts  and  truths? 

2.  Illustrate  erroneous  treatments  of  parables. 

3.  What  is  the  legitimate  way  to  use  types  ? 

4.  Read  through  a  whole  epistle  at  a  sitting  and  state  your 
impressions  concerning  it. 


Appendix  339 

5.  Read  Mark  and  John  thus,  and  then  compare  them  for 
yourself. 

6.  State  other  benefits  than  those  given  here,  of  common- 
sense  in  interpretation. 

7.  What  are  the  chief  differences  between  the  King  James 
Version  and  our  Revised  Version  ? 

8.  What  are  the  archaeological  discoveries  in  the  different 
Bible  lands  ?    Which  is  the  most  important  of  them  all  ? 

9.  *As  impressions  concerning  the  relation  between  archae- 
ology and  the  Bible  are  apt  to  be  vague,  of  what  are  you  sure 
concerning  it  ? 

10.  Distinguish  between  authoritative  and  infallible  or 
inerrant. 

11.  What  is  your  final  authority  in  religious  questions? 
Why  is  it  authoritative  ?  What  does  the  very  asking  of  the 
last  question  imply  concerning  authority? 

12.  To  what  extent,  in  what  ways,  and  why  do  you  study 
the  Bible  ?    How  has  it  influenced  you  most  for  good  ? 

PART  II 

Chapter  IV 

GEOGRAPHY  AND  CONTEMPORANEOUS  HISTORY 

1.  What  reasons  are  there  for  the  aim  and  the  method  of 
Part  II  ? 

2.  In  this  study  of  the  geography  of  Bible  lands  use  di- 
viders or  some  other  instrument  of  measurement.and  find  out 
distances  for  yourself.  Draw  concentric  circles  around  Jeru- 
salem, Antioch,  Rome,  etc.,  and  note  what  each  includes. 

3.  Photograph  the  map  upon  your  mind  so  that  without 
the  map  itself  you  can  mentally  journey  from  place  to  place, 
and  know  the  distances  and  places  of  importance  on  the  way. 

4.  Show  how  geography  and  topography  might  help  shape 
the  course  of  history. 


34©  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

5.  Show  how  they  might  help  mold  religious  beliefs.  De- 
velop the  thought  of  Palestine  being  a  laboratory. 

6.  *Show  how  Palestine  is  a  world  in  miniature. 

7.  Give  the  topography  of  Jerusalem  and  its  environments. 

8.  *What  are  the  most  important  Scripture  references  to 
the  different  peoples  of  Bible  times  ? 

Chapter  V 

HISTORY  OF  HEBREWS,  JEWS,  AND  EARLY  CHRISTIANS 

I.  Fix  586  B.  c.  in  mind  so  as  never  to  forget  it. 
2-8.  Answer  the  seven  questions  of  paragraphs  67.     For 
the  last  see  paragraph  102. 

9.  Which  of  the  Judges  stories  do  you  like  best  ?    Why  ? 

10.  Work  out  from  Scripture  your  own  list  of  kings  before 
looking  for  any  other  list. 

11.  In  seeking  to  remember  details  do  not  fail  to  fix  in 
mind  the  great  movements  and  important  periods.  Fit  these 
into  the  important  movements  and  periods  in  the  history  of 
surrounding  peoples. 

12.  Describe  politically,  socially,  and  religiously  the  world 
into  which  Christianity  came. 

13.  *Write  out,  largely  in  quotations  from  Scripture,  an 
account  of  the  development  and  a  description  of  the  Scribes, 
the  Pharisees  and  the  Sadducees. 

14.  Shut  your  Bible,  and  try  to  recall  book  by  book  what 
you  know  of  the  histories  and  stories  each  book  contains. 

Chapter  VI 

LITERATURE    OF    HEBREWS,    JEWS,   AND    EARLY    CHRISTIANS 

I.  Though  it  have  many  blank  places  and  question  marks, 
go  as  far  as  you  can  in  making  a  chronological  arrangement 
of  the  writings  of  the  Bible. 

2.  Make  special  efforts  to  fit  the  prophets  and  their  writings 
into  general  history.  Describe  them  as  social  reformers. 
♦Give  the  leading  message  of  each. 


Appendix  341 

3.  To  what  extent  is  the  Pentateuch  Mosaic? 

4.  *What  is  your  conception  of  the  real  David  and  the  real 
Solomon  ?  *What  were  their  relations  to  the  writing  of  the 
Old  Testament  ? 

5.  Compare  the  different  law  codes  in  the  Old  Testament. 

6.  Classify  the  New  Testament  writings  as  those  of  which 
you  a  (a)  surely,  {b)  probably,  or  (c)  possibly  know  the  author 
or  authors.  *Give  the  purpose  and,  in  brief,  the  plan  of  each 
writing. 

7.  Read  the  Old  Testament  Apocrypha.  How  do  they 
compare  with  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  ? 
How  does  Ecclesiasticus  compare  with  Esther  ? 

8.  *Name  and  describe  the  other  non-biblical  Jewish 
writings  of  Bible  times. 

9.  Compare  Hebrew  poetry  with  English  poetry. 

10.  *Make  a  collection  of  the  choicest  bits  of  poetry  in  the 
Bible  not  printed  as  poetry  even  in  the  Revised  Version. 

11.  Classify  the  different  kinds  of  parallelism  of  two,  three, 
four,  or  more  lines.  What  have  you  to  say  about  accents  in 
Hebrew  poetry  ? 

12.  *Select  what  to  you  are  the  choicest  illustrations  of  the 
different  kinds  of  prose  in  the  Bible. 

13.  How  large  a  place  has  prediction  in  biblical  prophecy  ? 
Has  there  been  a  noticeable  change  in  the  place  that  prediction 
occupies  in  apologetics  ?     If  so,  why  ? 

14.  Read  some  apocalyptic  literature  not  found  in  the 
Bible,  and  give  your  impressions  concerning  it.  *Compare 
prophecy  and  apocalyptic  literature. 

Chapter  VII 

ARTS,  SCIENCE,  AND   PHILOSOPHY 

I.  *Compare  from  the  standpoint  of  the  arts  the  different 
peoples  of  Bible  times.  Seek  to  explain  the  comparative 
excellences  and  deficiencies. 


342  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

2.  Shut  your  eves  and  see  Herod's  temple  as  a  whole. 
Enter  it,  pass  from  place  to  place  in  it,  and  note  who  and  what 
you  see. 

3.  What  place  do  the  temples  in  Jerusalem  take  in  the 
Bible  ?     Paint  for  yourself  Bible  scenes  that  belong  to  them. 

4.  *Which  was  earlier — Solomon's  Temple  or  the  account 
of  an  elaborate  tabernacle?  *Give  the  reasons  for  your 
answer. 

5.  Of  how  much  are  you  sure  concerning  the  beginning  of 
synagogue  worship?  Picture  this  worship  in  the  time  of 
Jesus. 

6.  *Give  an  outline  history  of  the  places  of  worship  from 
the  tent  of  meeting  to  the  Christian  church  at  the  death  of  Paul. 

7.  *How  would  the  music  of  David's  time  compare  with 
that  of  ours?  How  with  much  of  the  music  of  Eastern 
peoples  today  ? 

8.  *Compare  the  Babylonian  and  the  biblical  accounts  of 
creation. 

9.  Though  it  be  a  very  rough  one,  draw  a  sketch  of  what 
you  think  the  universe  was  to  the  Hebrews. 

10.  Though  it  prove  to  be  little  more  than  a  statement  of 
the  question  at  issue,  write  an  article  on  the  relation  between 
Greek  philosophy  and  New  Testament  thought. 

Chapter  VIII 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   BELIEFS   IN   BIBLE   TIMES 

1.  *Give  all  the  Old  Testament  passages  that  are  or  seem 
to  be  monolatrous.  Were  the  Hebrews  ever  polytheists? 
What  was  the  primitive  and  what  the  ultimate  belief  in  Je- 
hovah as  the  God  of  Israel  ? 

2.  *Give  all  the  Old  Testament  passages  where  solidarity 
overshadows  or  seems  to  overshadow  individualism. 

3.  How  often  does  the  word  "Sheol"  occur?  Make  a 
careful  study  of  its  different  uses. 


Appendix  343 

4.  How  bright  were  the  brightest  hopes  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment poets  concerning  lasting  fellowship  with  Jehovah  ? 

5.  *Quote  and  weigh  the  utterances  of  the  prophets  that 
are  claimed  to  teach  an  hereafter. 

6.  *Note  the  relation  between  the  representations  of  the 
non-biblical  literature  and  those  of  Jesus  concerning  the 
hereafter. 

7.  *Give,  largely  in  quotations  from  Scripture,  the  history 
of  the  idea  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  What  is  the  difference 
between  the  "kingdom"  and  the  "church,"  as  these  words 
are  used  in  the  New  Testament  ? 

8.  Give  the  passages  used  in  support  of  millennial  views, 
of  future  probation,  of  an  intermediate  state,  and  of  purga 
tory.     What  do  the  passages  cited  teach  ?     What  authority 
have  they  ? 

9.  *Give,  mainly  in  quotations  from  Scripture,  the  history 
of  the  idea  of  Satan  and  his  hosts. 

10.  Was  there  an  ethical  development  in  Bible  times  ? 
Distinguish  between  the  different  classes  of  teachers  in  the 
Bible  in  respect  to  the  sins  they  strongly  condemned  and  in 
respect  to  where  they  put  the  emphasis  in  the  matter  of  per- 
sonal responsibility. 

11.  What  are  your  own  views  concerning  the  value  of  the 
changes  of  views  in  Bible  times  ? 

12.  *Write  a  short  article  on  the  philosophy  and  develop- 
ment of  the  Christian  religion. 

Chapter  IX 

JESUS   AS   THE   CHRIST 

1.  Make  a  collection  of  the  most  important  Old  Testa- 
ment passages  claimed  to  be  messianic. 

2.  *Make  a  collection  of  the  most  important  messianic 
passages  in  non-biblical  writings  before  the  time  of  Christ. 

3.  *Illustrate,  largely  in  quotations,  the  different  stages  in 


344  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

the  development  of  the  messianic  idea  and    the  different 
phases  of  the  messianic  hope 

4.  Is  belief  in  the  virgin-birth  a  necessary  part  of  belief  in 
the  divine  sonship  of  Jesus  ?  What  is  the  worth  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  virgin-birth  ? 

5.  What  is  the  relation  between  the  prologue  and  the  rest 
of  the  Fourth  Gospel  ? 

6.  *Make  a  collection  of  the  reports  of  Christ's  own  uses 
of  each  of  the  messianic  titles. 

7.  To  what  extent  were  his  messianic  views  eschatological  ? 
Compare  them  with  the  messianic  views  in  the  non-biblical, 
Jewish  writings  of  Bible  times. 

8.  *Go  more  deeply  into  the  question  of  development  of 
view  in  Christ's  own  thinking. 

9.  In  what  way  and  to  what  extent  was  Jesus  in  the  Old 
Testament  ?  What  bearing  have  John  5 :  39  and  I  Pet.  i :  10, 
II,  upon  this  question? 

10.  Whom  had  the  prophet  in  mind  in  writing  the  fifty- 
third  chapter  of  Isaiah  ? 

PART  III 
Chapter  X 

HALF-WAY  TO   1517  A.  D. 

1.  Between  its  lines  of  facts  let  the  student  of  Part  III  read 
its  great  truths. 

2.  What  close  relationship  exists  between  Mohammed- 
anism and  the  two  religions,  Judaism  and  Christianity  ? 

3.  *Compare  the  Koran  with  the  Bible,  Mohammed  with 
Jesus. 

4.  *Make  a  fuller  list  of  the  church  fathers,  and  be  able 
when  any  of  them  is  named  to  place  him  in  the  time  and 
group  to  which  he  belongs. 

5.  *Make  a  list  of  the  most  notable  martyrs.  Know  the 
stories  of  their  lives  and  deaths. 


Appendix  345 

6.  How  do  Apollonius,  Celsus,  and  Porphyry  compare 
with  Jesus  ? 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  points  of  contact  between  Neo- 
platonism  and  early  Christianity  ? 

8.  *Compare  the  four  great  creeds. 

9.  Carefully  examine  the  validity  of  the  claims  made  for 
the  primacy  of  Rome.  What  is  the  meaning  of  Matt.  18: 
18,  19? 

Chapter  XI 
TO  1517  A.  D. 

1.  When  and  how  did  the  modern  European  nations 
begin? 

2.  Enter  more  fully  into  the  "dramatic  event  of  the  Middle 
Ages."  Give  in  outline  the  history  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire. 

3.  In  addition  to  the  doctrinal  and  ceremonial  difiFerences, 
what  are  the  characteristics  that  distinguish  the  Eastern 
church  from  the  Roman  Catholic  church  and  from  Protes- 
tantism ? 

4.  *0f  what  importance  is  the  study  of  feudalism  and  of 
the  Crusades  for  the  understanding  of  the  social  questions 
of  today  ? 

5.  What  are  the  origin  and  the  explanation  of  monasti- 
cism? 

6.  Name  a  number  of  the  great  Schoolmen,  and  be  able 
to  distinguish  clearly  between  them.  *Compare  the  influence 
of  Plato  and  Aristotle  upon  them. 

7.  *State  the  different  views  as  to  what  a  sacrament  is. 
Compare  them. 

8.  *What  is  the  relation  between  the  Renaissance  and  the 
Reformation  ? 

9.  *What  are  the  most  important  events  and  sapngs  in  the 
thrilling  records  of  the  reformers  before  the  Reformation  ? 


346  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

Chapter  XII 
SINCE  15 1 7  A.  D. 

1.  Get  personally  acquainted  with  Luther.  A  knowledge 
of  his  contemporaries,  of  his  times,  and  of  subsequent  Luther- 
anism  will  then  be  easily  obtained. 

2.  Get  personally  acquainted  with  Calvin,  if  you  wish  to 
understand  the  subsequent  history  of  a  large  part  of  Protes- 
tantism. 

3.  *Wliat  were  the  "five  points"  of  Calvinism? 

4.  *Wliat  is  the  history  of  the  relation  between  church  and 
state  in  France  ?    What  countries  still  have  state  religions  ? 

5.  Explain  historically  the  Anglo-Catholic  movement  in 
the  established  church  in  England. 

6.  *Explain  historically  the  relation  in  England  between 
the  established  church  and  nonconformity.  *Give  the  history 
of  the  question  of  religious  education  at  issue  between  them. 

7.  Get  well  acquainted  with  the  Wesleys,  William  Booth, 
John  Henry  Newman,  George  Williams,  and  John  Clifford. 

8.  *Learn  something  important  and  definite  concerning 
each  of  the  most  important  English  versions  of  the  Bible. 

9.  To  what  extent  have  the  theological  experiences  of 
Scotland  found  expression  in  her  literature  ? 

10.  Get  acquainted  with  Roberston  Smith,  his  times, 
views,  etc. 

11.  What  is  your  opinion  of  the  decision  of  the  law  lords 
in  favor  of  the  orthodox  "Wee  Frees"  ?  How  much  did  the 
"Wee  Frees"  gain  ultimately  through  that  decision? 

Chapter  XIII 

SINCE   15 1 7 — CONTINUED 

I.  Keep  in  mind  the  two  great  wars  in  the  history  of  the 
United  States.  Get  well  acquainted  with  Roger  Williams, 
Jonathan  Edwards,  and  Horace  Bushnell. 


Appendix  347 

2.  Read  concerning  Alexander  Campbell,  Joseph  Smith, 
William  Miller,  and  Mrs.  Eddy,  and  seek  to  explain  the  influ- 
ence of  their  views. 

3.  Look  up  the  history  of  the  Jesuits.  Illustrate  the  four 
methods  named. 

4.  *Give  the  leading  events  in  the  history  of  Ultramon- 
tanism. 

5.  What  is  the  origin,  development,  and  present  condition 
of  the  Old  Catholic  movement  ? 

6.  What,  after  all,  is  the  greatest  difference  between  Prot- 
estantism and  Roman  Catholicism  ? 

7.  *Give  an  outline  history  of  the  relation  between  church 
and  state  in  Protestant  lands. 

8.  How  does  the  average  Sunday  school  today  differ  from 
that  of  Robert  Raikes  ? 

9.  *Along  what  lines  is  there  greatest  need  of  improve- 
ment in  the  Sunday  schools  of  today  ? 

10.  *Collect  the  specific  references  in  the  Bible  to  the  use 
of  hquor.  *What  impression  do  they  make  upon  you  ?  *What 
general  principles  taught  in  the  Bible  are  appropriate  in  the 
question  of  temperance  ? 

11.  Distinguish  between  fermented  and  distilled  liquors. 
♦Give  a  history  of  fermented  liquors  down  to  the  eighteenth 
century. 

12.  Get  acquainted  with  Miss  Willard  and  the  temperance 
work  with  which  she  was  connected. 

Chapter  XIV 

CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS 

1.  Do  not  fail  to  use  maps. 

2.  Add  to  the  lists  of  missionaries  in  the  first  period. 
Learn  something  worth  while  concerning  each. 

3.  What  is  the  history  of  the  Nestorians  ? 

4.  Give  an  outline  history  of  Roman  Catholic  missions 


348  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

down  to  the  present  time.     Of  those  of  the  Greek  church. 
*Of  those  of  Protestantism. 

5.  What  is  the  history  of  the  Moravians  ? 

6.  *Add  to  our  Hst  of  great  missionaries  since  Carey,  and 
give  something  definite  and  important  concerning  each. 

7.  What  are  the  most  important  missionary  societies,  and 
why  are  they  important? 

8.  What  do  you  know  concerning  the  present  condition  of 
the  mission  fields  of  the  world?  Group  them.  Let  one 
group  be  the  islands  of  the  world,  let  the  other  groups  be  the 
different  continents.     Give  a  bird's-eye  view  of  each  group. 

9.  *What  are  the  reasons  for  missions?  *"Has  Chris- 
tianity the  moral  right  to  supplant  the  ethnic  faiths?"  *Is 
it  fitted  to  be  the  religion  of  the  world  ?  *What  are  its  uni- 
versal elements  ? 

10.  What  reflex  influence  have  missions  upon  the  churches 
that  support  them  ? 

11.  Describe  your  ideal  missionary.  What,  for  instance, 
is  his  attitude  to  other  religions  and  their  writings  ? 

12.  Do  you  believe  in  missions?  How  much  are  you 
giving  to  them  ? 

Chapter  XV 

LITERATURE,    ARTS,    AND   SCIENCE 

1.  What  is  the  relation  between  the  Bible  and  subsequent 
Christian  literature?  *Consider  the  term  "Word  of  God" 
biblically  and  historically. 

2.  *Give  an  outline  history  of  the  art  of  biblical  and  Chris- 
tian times. 

3.  What  place  has  Jesus  in  poetry  and  in  fiction  ?  What 
place  has  Jesus  in  art  ?  What  paintings  of  him  do  you  like 
the  best  ? 

4.  What  place  has  art,  including  architecture  and  music, 
in  the  religious  life  of  today  ?  What  place  should  it  have  ? 
Give  the  pros  and  cons  of  liturgical  worship. 


Appendix  349 

5.  Just  what  is  meant  by  the  secularizing  of  church  music  ? 
Consider  it  historically. 

6.  *Give  an  outline  history  of  the  conflict  between  theology 
and  the  other  sciences. 

7.  *What  benefit  have  these  other  sciences  been  to  reli- 
gion? 

8.  *What  are  the  views  of  the  new  theology  concerning  the 
great  tenets  of  the  old  ? 

9.  Give  a  brief  history  of  both  higher  and  textual  criticism. 

10.  Give  the  nature,  history,  and  practical  value  of  the 
science  of  comparative  religion. 

Chapter  XVI 

PHILOSOPHY  AND   ISMS 

1.  With  the  use  of  the  Index,  review  what  has  been  written 
concerning  philosophy.  Distinguish  it  from  theology.  Be 
sure  you  know  what  the  inductive  method  and  what  idealism 
are. 

2.  Though  it  mean  a  little  effort,  fix  in  mind  the  little  that 
is  written  here  about  modern  philosophers.  It  will  make 
easier  any  extended  reading  in  modern  philosophy. 

3.  *Give  as  fully  as  possible  the  history  of  philosophy  in 
biblical  and  Christian  times. 

4.  What  is  the  relation  between  Anabaptists  and  modern 
Baptists  ? 

5.  *What  is  the  history  of  Mysticism  ?  *What  connection 
had  Mysticism  with  Neoplatonism,  the  Schoolmen,  Pietism, 
etc.  ?  *What  do  you  think  of  its  method  of  treating  the 
Bible  ? 

6.  Compare  Arianism,  Socinianism,  and  Unitarianism. 

7.  See  deism  in  its  historical  setting. 

8.  Get  acquainted  with  Schleiermacher,  Strauss,  Baur,  and 
Ritschl. 

9.  What  do  you  know  about  Ritschlianism  ?     What  have 


35©  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

you  read  by  its  leading  representatives?     Perhaps  you  have 
only  heard  and  read  about  it. 

10.  Compare  Bushnell  and  Ritschl. 

11.  *Carefully  review  Part  III  and  write  out  at  least 
twenty  great  truths  that  are  to  be  read  between  the  lines. 

PART  IV 
Chapter  XVII 

THE   GLORIOUS   GOSPEL 

1.  Notice  the  three  parts  in  the  aim  of  Part  IV,  and  give 
the  relations  between  them. 

2.  Compare  the  cross  of  Jesus  as  viewed  in  Paul's  time  and 
as  it  is  viewed  today.  Compare  the  worth  to  Paul  of  Roman 
citizenship  and  of  the  cross  of  Christ. 

3.  *What  are  the  earliest  non-Christian  references  to 
Christianity  and  Jesus? 

4.  To  characterize  the  attitude  today  to  the  gospel,  what 
words  would  you  use  besides  indifiference  ?  Is  it  the  chief 
characteristic  ?  What  is  the  explanation  of  the  present  atti- 
tude? 

5.  *What  is  salvation  ?  Let  the  answer  be  in  view  of  both 
the  penalty  and  the  power  of  sin.  Is  a  false  view  of  it  vaguely 
but  commonly  held  ? 

6.  *What  is  forgiveness?  What  effect  has  it  on  the  sin- 
ner's relation  to  God,  on  the  consequences  of  his  past  sins 
and  on  his  future  conduct  ?  How  is  the  conviction  of  for- 
giveness to  be  obtained  ? 

7.  *What  is  faith  ?  Is  a  false  view  of  it  commonly  but 
vaguely  held  ?  Is  faith  that  which  links  us  to  God's  power  ? 
How  is  it  to  be  obtained? 

8.  What  place  has  Jesus  in  our  obtaining  this  faith  and 
power  ?     What  meaning  and  authority  has  Acts  4:12? 

9.  What  place  has  experience  in  theology  ? 

10.  *What  is  the  essence  of  Christianity? 


Appendix  351 

Chapter  XVIII 

THE   DEATH   OF  JESUS 

1.  Name  and  distinguish  between  the  most  important 
"theories  of  the  atonement."  Do  you  distinguish  between  a 
vicarious  and  a  substitutionary  theory  ?  Would  it  be  helpful 
to  clear  thinking  if  the  word  "atonement"  were  not  used  in 
connection  with  some  of  the  many  theories  ? 

2.  As  far  as  possible  explain  the  different  theories  from  the 
times  and  circumstances  of  their  origin. 

3.  *Is  the  substitutionary  theory  taught  in  Scripture  ?  *If 
so,  in  what  passages  and  what  authority  have  they? 

4.  *In  the  light  of  the  prophets,  what  do  you  think  of  the 
New  Testament  use  of  the  Old  Testament  sacrifices  ?  *What 
are  the  leading  thoughts  back  of  the  Old  Testament  sacri- 
fices? 

5.  From  the  records  what  may  we  infer  about  the  thoughts 
of  Jesus  himself  concerning  the  significance  of  his  death  ? 

6.  The  question  is  often  asked:  "How  does  the  death  of 
Jesus  differ  from  that  of  any  other  great  martyr?"  *What 
answer  would  you  make  ? 

7.  *Coming  to  it  along  the  way  of  his  life  what  does  the 
cross  of  Jesus  mean  for  your  thinking?  What  is  its  main 
thought  ? 

8.  What  effect  upon  your  life  has  the  cross  of  Jesus  ? 

9.  Do  you  profess  to  be  his  follower  ?  What  do  you  mean 
by  it  ?    and  how  are  you  following  him  ? 

Chapter  XIX 

THE   FATHERHOOD   OF   GOD 

1.  Before  the  time  of  Jesus  in  the  Oid  Testament  and  else- 
where what  references  have  we  to  the  fatherhood  of  God  ? 

2.  *Give  the  biblical  development  of  the  idea  of  deity — 
from  the  earliest  times  to  Jesus'  conception  of  the  fatherhood 
of  God. 


352  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

3.  *Collect  all  the  passages  in  which  Jesus  is  represented 
as  using  the  word  "father." 

4.  Show  how  the  figure  of  kingship  could  be  stretched  to 
include  a  very  large  part  of  our  conception  of  God. 

5.  What  is  the  relation  between  the  fatherhood  of  God  and 
the  brotherhood  of  man  ? 

6.  Wliat  is  the  New  Testament  basis  for  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity?  In  Matt.  1:20  and  Luke  1:35  the  specific 
references  are  to  the  Holy  Spirit  rather  than  to  the  Father. 
Has  this  fact  any  bearing  upon  the  significance  of  fatherhood 
in  the  Trinity? 

7.  *How  does  the  teaching  of  the  New  Testament  com- 
pare with  that  of  the  early  creeds  concerning  the  Trinity? 

8.  What  is  your  own  view  concerning  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity?  Do  you  distinguish  between  Trinity  and 
Triunity  ? 

9.  What  is  your  own  view  concerning  the  fatherhood  of 
God  and  concerning  the  nature  of  the  Holy  Spirit  ?  What 
pronouns  can  yon  use  in  referring  to  "God"  and  to  the  "Holy 
Spirit"  ? 

10.  How  did  you  get  your  views  concerning  the  Trinity, 
the  fatherhood  of  God,  the  sonship  of  Jesus,  and  the  nature 
of  the  Holy  Spirit?  Why  do  you  continue  to  hold  them? 
As  revealed  in  your  life  what  are  they  worth  ? 

Chapter  XX 

THE   HEREAFTER 

1.  *Make  a  fuller  comparison  between  Hezekiah  and 
Paul  as  illustrating  the  development  of  the  Christian  doctrine 
of  the  hereafter. 

2.  *What  place  in  the  New  Testament  has  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Jesus  ? 

3.  *What  has  it  meant  to  the  ages  since  ? 

4.  Do  you  have  any  difficulty  in  harmonizing  the  diflferent 


Appendix  353 

accounts  of  the  resurrection  of  Jesus?     If  so,  what  is  the 
right  attitude  for  you  to  take  concerning  them  ? 

5.  What  is  your  attitude  to  the  belief  of  Satan  held  in  the 
New  Testament  ? 

6.  What  place  has  belief  in  Satan  had  in  religious  life  and 
literature  since  New  Testament  times. 

7.  What  do  you  mean  by  hell  ?  Do  you  believe  in  eternal 
hell  ?  What  percentage  of  Protestants  believe  there  is  to  be 
an  eternal  hell  for  the  great  majority  that  have  lived  thus 
far? 

8.  What  is  your  attitude  to  the  doctrine  of  conditional 
immortality  ? 

9.  Do  you  entertain  the  larger  hope  ?  If  so,  on  what 
grounds  ? 

10.  Describe  the  heaven  you  expect.  On  what  do  you 
base  your  hope  of  enjoying  it  ? 

Chapter  XXI 

THE  CHRISTIAN  LIFE  TODAY 

1.  Illustrate  the  power  of  purity,  justice,  mercy,  love,  and 
Christlikeness. 

2.  Give  different  elements  in  the  personal  religion  of 
Jesus.     How  do  they  compare  with  those  in  your  own  ? 

3.  Discuss  Jesus  as  an  example — as  a  boy,  as  a  man  of 
affairs,  as  a  healer,  as  a  thinker,  as  a  teacher,  as  a  prophet,  as 
a  martyr,  etc. 

4.  *Compare  the  temperance,  labor,  and  other  social  ques- 
tions of  today  with  those  of  Christ's  time. 

5.  What  is  his  gospel  doing  through  you  against  the  evils 
of  the  liquor  traffic  ?  What  to  meet  the  boy  problem  ?  What 
to  turn  public  opinion  against  graft  and  spoils  in  business  and 
politics  ? 

6.  Have  you  honestly  faced  the  labor  problem  with  the 
question:  "What  ought  (or  what  may)  I  do  to  help  solve  it  ?" 


354  Christianity  and  Its  Bible 

What  is  the  point  of  contact  between  the  work  of  the  church 
and  the  labor  movement  ? 

7.  What  is  the  right  attitude  of  the  church  to  socialism, 
communism,  etc.  ?  What  place  have  these  questions  in  the 
pulpit  ? 

8.  Has  antinominianism  a  subtle  influence  in  your  life  in 
preventing  you  from  living  the  gospel  and  its  cross  ? 

9.  *Consider  the  question  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  biblically, 
historically,  and  practically. 

Chapter  XXII 

MEDITATION 

1.  What  was  the  chief  method  of  Christ's  revelations  con- 
cerning the  gospel,  the  Father,  the  hereafter,  and  the  life  that 
now  is?  How  are  we  best  able  to  receive  these  and  other 
great  revelations  ? 

2.  Look  up  in  the  Bible  and  elsewhere  the  different  uses 
of  the  word  "meditate. "  How  do  they  compare  with  the  one 
used  here  ? 

3.  In  addition  to  those  given  in  this  chapter,  what  rules  for 
meditation  occur  to  you  ?     Which  is  the  hardest  of  all  its  rules  ? 

4.  Make  a  collection  of  themes,  Scripture  passages,  and 
other  quotations  that  would  be  most  appropriate  in  medita- 
tion. A  booklet  of  your  own  collection  of  such  thoughts  for 
meditation  would  mean  an  enrichment  of  your  life. 

5.  Enter  more  fully  into  the  meaning  of  the  terms  concern- 
ing God  in  paragraph  354.  How  would  you  answer  Helen 
Keller's  request:  "Tell  me  something  you  know  about  God"  ? 

6.  Illustrate  the  eflfect  of  meditation  upon  Bible  study, 
prayer,  affection,  will,  missions,  revivals,  Christian  joy,  etc. 

7.  Write  a  short  article  on  meditation  and  mysticism. 

8.  Write  another  on  meditation  and  prayer. 

9.  To  what  extent  have  you  meditated?  With  what 
result  ? 


Appendix  355 

Chapter  XXIII 

MIDDLEMEN 

1.  Who  are  the  greatest  specialists  for  today  in  the  depart- 
ments of  Old  Testament,  New  Testament,  church  history 
systematic  theology,  Assyriology,  philosophy,  etc.  ?  Describe 
them  as  specialists. 

2.  Name  and  describe  as  middlemen  clergymen  and  others 
who  approach  nearest  your  ideal  of  a  middleman. 

3.  *Describe  (and  as  far  as  convenient  in  their  own  lan- 
guage) their  attitude  to  the  questions  of  the  origin  and  devel- 
opment of  religion.  In  the  same  way  describe  their  attitude 
to  the  literature  of  different  religions  and  to  other  phases  of 
the  science  of  comparative  religion. 

4.  *To  inspiration  and  interpretation,  and  to  spiritual  as 
distinguished  from  merely  scholarly  insight  into  the  Bible. 

5.  *To  the  chronology,  history,  literature,  etc.,  of  Bible 
times. 

6.  *To  the  question  of  development  in  the  Bible  and  of 
evolution  in  general. 

7.  *To  the  creeds  and  missions  of  the  churches. 

8.  *To  new  psychology,  new  theology,  higher  criticism, 
and  other  isms  of  today. 

9.  *To  the  virgin-birth,  the  resurrection  of  Jesus,  and 
miracles  in  general. 

10.  *To  Christ's  death,  the  Trinity,  and  the  hereafter. 

11.  *To  bigots  and  to  skeptics. 

12.  *To  the  great  practical  problems  of  today. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


[The  references  are  to 
Abaddon,  io6. 
Abelard,  259. 
Adolphus,  Gustavus,  177. 
Adoption,  306. 
Adventists,  igS. 
Africa,  222,  223,  227. 
Agnostic,  242,  326. 
Agriculture,  62. 
Agrippa:   see  Herods. 
Ahriman,  127. 
Albigenses,  165,  173. 
Alchemy,  241. 

Alexander  the  Great,  65,  72, 
Alexandria,  65. 
Allodial,  163. 
Altruism,  330,  331. 
Alva,  Duke  of,  181. 
Amalekites,  56. 
Ambrose,  229,  240. 
Ammonites,  62,  67. 
Amorites,  56. 
Amos,  81,  302. 
Amphibology,  201. 
Anabaptism,  251. 
"Analogy,"  257. 
Andover  theology,  193. 
Angelo,  237. 
Angels,  128. 
Anne,  185,  190,  191. 
Ansgar,  212. 
Antichrist,  128. 
Antinomianism,  343. 
Antiochus,  Epiphanes,  73. 
Antipater,  73,  74. 
Apelles,  103. 

Apocalyptic  writings,  88,  98. 
Apocrypha,  36,  88,  145. 
ApoUinaris,  154,  363. 
ApoUonius,  147. 
Apologists,  14s.  367- 


paragraphs,  not  to  pages] 
A  posteriori,  no. 
Apostolic  fathers,  145. 
Appearances,  318. 
A  priori,  no. 

Aquinas,  Thomas,  168,  171. 
Aralu,  117. 

Aramaic,  62,  72,  136. 
Arameans,  62. 

Archaeology,  43,  58,  59,  60,  64,  369. 
Architecture,  99,  103.  233-6,  264. 
Aristotle,  Aristotelianism,  107,  no. 
Arius,  Arianism,  153,  210,  363. 
Arminianism,  155,  181,  186. 
Arnold,  Matthew,  231,  327. 
Art,  99-103,  132,  233,  234,  238,  264, 

294. 
Aryans,  ss,  92,  143. 
Ascension,  318. 
Ashurbanipal,  59. 
Aspiration,  236,  297,  298. 
Associationists,  no,  249. 
Assyriology,  13,  57-59.  99.  128. 
Astrology,  241. 
Astronomy,  106. 
Athanasius,  146,  153. 
Atonement,  9,  loi,  181,  186,  195,  222. 

283-300, 332. 
A.  U.  C,  75- 
Aufkldrung,  259. 
Augustine,   146,   155,   156,   175,   202, 

229. 
Augustine  or  Austin,  211. 
Aurelius,  Marcus,  in,  142. 
Authority,  95,  146,  323,  365,  374. 
Avatar,  13. 

Baal,  62,  211. 
Babylon,  57,  60,  61. 
Babylonia,  57,  58,  60. 
Bach,  240. 
Bacon,  Francis,  242,  246. 


359 


360 


Christianity  and  Its  Bible 


Bacon,  Roger,  241. 

Ballou,  Hosea,  256. 

Baptism,  136,  170,  210,  212,  251. 

Baptists,  183,  193,  219,  251. 

Basilican,  235. 

Bauer,  261. 

Baxter,  229. 

B.  C,  75. 

Beecher,  229. 

Beethoven,  240. 

Belgium,  181. 

Belshazzar,  60. 

Berkeley,  246,  247. 

Bernard  of  Clairveaux,  229,  230,  259. 

Bernard  of  Cluny,  230. 

Besant,  Mrs.,  253. 

Bible:  _  meaning,  15,  16;  and  other 
Specially  Sacred  writings,  18;  in- 
fluence, 19,  232;  misinterpretation, 
20-25;  Word  of  God,  20,  30,  371; 
oriental,  21;  inerrancy,  26-29,  31. 
37;  inspiration,  27-37;  inductive 
study,  28,  29;  claims,  30-34; 
canon,  36,  37;  steps  and  prerequi- 
sites in  study,  38;  common-sense, 
39-42;  library,  41;  translations, 
42,  72,  77,  173,  175,  184,  212,  220, 
221,  226,  282;  languages,  42,  72; 
style,  42;  archaeology,  43;  manu- 
scripts, 44;  geography,  and  contem- 
poraneous history,  51-65;  history 
of  Hebrews,  Jews,  and  early  Chris- 
tians, 66-79;  series  of  histories,  81; 
types  of  doctrine,  86;  difference  be- 
tween Old  Testament  and  New 
Testament,  87;  literary  forms,  90- 
98;  Jesus  and  Old  Testament,  139, 
140;  the  Fathers,  146;  pagan 
leaders.  147-49;  Swedenborg,  253; 
rationalism,  259;  science,  105-8, 
241-45.  341,  369.  Schleiermacher, 
260;  difficulties,  302,  374;  father- 
hood, 311;  meditation,  355,  356; 
education,  363;  criticism,  372-74; 
Jesus  and  New  Testament,  282. 

Bigot,  372. 

Biology,  3. 

Bishop,  157. 

Blavatsky,  Madam,  253. 

Boehme,  246,  253. 

Bohemian  Brethren,  218. 

Book  of  Concord,  205. 

Book  of  the  Dead,  13. 

Bouar,  230. 


Boniface,  211. 

Booth,  Commander,  i36. 

Bossuet,  229. 

Boxers,  224. 

Brahma,  13. 

Brahmanas,  13. 

Brahmanism,  13,  226,  256. 

Brahms  Somaj,  256. 

Brainerd,  David,  217. 

Breasted,  J.  H.,  63. 

Bridget,  210. 

Brooks,  229. 

Browning,   231,   271,   295,   309,   328 

Bruno,  246. 

Buddhism,  13,  35,  225,  226. 

Buffon,  242. 

Bunyan,  185,  229. 

Bushnell,  Horace,  195,  262. 

Business,  340. 

Butler,  Bishop,  257. 

Byron,  231. 

Byzantine,  235. 

Cabala,  253. 

Calvary,  138,  291. 

Calvin,  John,  178,  217,  256. 

Calvinism,  178-82,  186,  194,  195,  198. 

Campbell,  Campbellites,  196. 

Canaanites,  62. 

Canon,  36,  37. 

Capital  and  labor,  340. 

Captivity,  115,  116,  117. 

Carey,  William,  219. 

Caste,  220,  226. 

Catacombs,  234. 

Catechisms,  204-6. 

Catenae,  146. 

Catholicism,  R.,   168,   220-203,   204, 

215,  2l6. 
Cause,  303. 
Celsus,  148. 
Chaldean,  57,  60. 
Chalmers,  229, 

Character,  320,  336,  347,  349  ff. 
Charlemagne,  1^9,  212. 
Chautauqua,  206. 
Chemosh,  32,  62,  114. 
Children,  170,  204,  206,  226,  332,  339 


Index 


361 


China,  209,  220,  224,  225. 
Chivalry,  164. 

Christ,  129-40,  199;    see  Messiah. 
Christianity,  269,  278,  279,  329. 
Christian  Science,  199. 
Chronology,  45,  63,  80-89. 
Chrysostom,  146,  229. 
Church  building,  359;    see  Architec- 
ture. 
Church  of  England,  182-88,  193. 
Church  of  desert,  179. 
Civilization,  343. 
Claudius,  77,  150. 
Claverhouse,  190. 
Cleopatra,  65. 
Clergy,  162,  169. 
Clovis,  143,  144,  159,  210. 
Codex,  44. 
Coleridge,  231,  248. 
Coligny,  217. 
Colossians,  85. 
Columba,  211. 
Commerce,  67,  ii6. 
Common  sense,  39-42,  98. 
Comparative  religion,  24s,  369,  372. 
Comte,  246,  249. 
Concentration,  348,  349. 
Concordat,  180. 
Confessors,  151. 
Confirmation,  170. 
Confucianism,  13. 
Congregationalists,  183,  193,  195. 
Consecration,  221. 
Constantine,  142,  151. 
Constantinople,  142,  162,  172. 

Controversies,  153-55,  i6i,  162,  176- 
91,  194,  19s,  202,  203,  251,  255- 
62,  283-89,  303,  310-12,  324-26, 
363,  369-74- 

Conversion,  9,  262,  276,  366. 

Copernicus,  241. 

Corinthian  Epistles,  85. 

Coreggio,  237. 

Councils:  Carthage,  36;  Chalcedon, 
156,  204;  Constantinople,  153,  154; 
Nicaea,  142,  145,  153,  156,  208; 
Trent,  36,  200,  204. 

Counter-reformation,  200. 


Covenants,  Covenanters,  189,   190. 

Cowper,  230. 

Creation,  59,  60,  105,  241,  242,  244, 

245- 
Creeds,  156,  204,  205,  322. 
Criticism,   higher,   45,   96,    191,   363, 

366,  373;   textual,  373. 
Cromwell,  185. 
Cross,  138,  139,  236,  239,  267,    269, 

283-300  (esp.  289,  297),  340,  344. 
Crusades,  165,  166,  213. 
Culture,  334,  335. 
Cyril  and  Methodius,  212. 
Cyrus,  61,  71. 

Damascus,  62. 

Daniel,  Book  of,  98,  149. 

Dante,  168,  231,  323. 

Darbyites,  198. 

Darwin,  242. 

David,  32,  67,  83,  130. 

Day  of  Lord,  122. 

Death,  19,  117,  283-300,  315-18. 

Decius,  142,  151.  , 

Deduction,  no. 

Definition,  i,  303,  304,  310-12,  345- 

47. 
Deism,  257,  258,  259,  354. 
Demon,  126,  see  Satan. 
Denominations,  341. 
Descartes,  246. 
Desert,  52. 

Deuteronomy,  70,  84,  244. 
Development,  114,  129,  138,  166,  242 

243.  316,  370. 
Devil,  126,  285;    see  Satan. 
Devotional  literature,  229. 
Dharamapada,  13. 
Diderot,  258. 
Diet  of  Worms,  lys- 
Dionysius,  254. 
Disciples,  196. 
Divorces,  341. 
Docetism,  152. 
Doddridge,  230. 
Dominicans,  167,  173,  215. 
Doubt:   see  Skepticism. 
Durer,  237. 


362 


Christianity  and  Its  Bible 


E,  84. 

Eastern  church,  156,  161,  162,  204, 

212,  214,  238. 
Eastern  Empire,  142. 
Ebionism,  152. 

Ecclesiastes,  82,  83,  93,  112. 
Ecclesiasticus,  88. 
Eckhart,  254. 
Ecumenical,  142. 
Eddas,  14. 
Eddy,  Mrs.  199. 
Eden,  Garden,  127. 
Edict  of  Toleration,  151,  180. 
Edict  of  Nantes,  179. 
Edomites,  62,  67,  73. 
Education,  188,  343. 
Edward  VI,  182. 
Edwards,   Jonathan,    194,    229,   247, 

324- 
Egypt,  si>  S6,  63-65,  99. 
Egyptology,  13. 
Eichhorn,  244. 
Election,  122,  181. 
Electricity,  286. 
Elegy,  92. 
Elijah,  81,  211. 
Eliot,  John,  217. 
Elisha,  81. 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  183. 
Emperors,  77,  142. 
Empiricists,  no. 
Encylcopaedists,  258. 
England,  159,  211,  see  Ch.  of  England 
Enlightenment,  258,  259. 
Enoch,  Book  of,  88. 
Environment,  339. 
Ephesians,  85. 
Epictetus,  III. 
Epicureanism,  in,  112. 
Episcopacy,  178,  183,  184,  185,  189, 

190. 
Epistles,  97. 
Erasmus,  172,  176. 
Esarhaddon,  59. 
Eschatology,  120,  125. 
Essenes,  78. 

Eternal  generation,  153,  306. 
Eternal  life,  274,  318,  327,  328. 


Eternal  punishment,  256,  324. 
Eusebius,  145. 
"  Evidences,"  Paley,  259. 
Evolution,  242,  243,  249. 
Experience,  260,  275,  281,  301,  313. 
Experientialists,  no. 
Ezekiel,  70,  81,  84,  302. 
Ezra,  71,  78. 

Faber,  230. 

Facts  and  truths,  38,  95,  314. 

Faith,  9,  168,  218,  219,  222,  276,  298, 

326. 
Fatherhood  of  God,   137,   140,  300, 

301-13,  325,  354,  360. 
Fathers,  141,  145,  146,  229, 
Faunce,  Pres.  W.  H.  P.,  296,  300. 
Felix,  76. 
Fenelon,  229. 
Festus,  76. 

Feudalism,  163,  164,  166. 
Fiction,  231,  232. 
Figure  of  speech  9,  10,  21,  22,  121, 

270,  287,  288,  303-11. 
Filioque,  156,  161. 
Finney,  Charles  G.  D.,  195. 
Flood,  59,  105,  106,  244,  245. 
Foreordination,  155,  186,  256,  350. 
Fox  George,  33,  183. 
France,  159,  179,  180,  258. 
Francis  of  Assissi,  167,  213. 
Franciscans,  167,  213,  215. 
Friendship,  358,  359. 
Froebel,  339. 
Fuller,  Andrew  219. 

Galatians,  85. 

Galileo,  241. 

Gallicanism,  202. 

Gautama:   see  Buddha. 

Gehenna,  322. 

Gemaras,  14. 

Geography  of  Bible  times,   51-54. 

Geology,  106.  242. 

Gerhardt,  230. 

Germany,  159,  177,  211. 

Girgashite,  56. 

Gnosticism,  152,  242. 


Index 


3^3 


God,  s,  7,  113,  114,  243,  248,  287, 

301,  367. 
Goethe,  48,  231,  323. 
Gospels,  97,  122,  128,  147. 
Gothic,  236. 
Gottingen  school,  262. 
Government,  166. 
Grace,  9,  i8i. 
Graft,  340. 
Gravitation,  242. 
Greek,  72,  103. 
Gregory  the   Great,   146,   157,   211, 

240. 
Guyon,  Madam,  235 

Hadad,  62. 

Hades,  106,  117,  120,  322. 

Hammurabi,  32,  58. 

Handel,  19,  240. 

Happiness,  361,  362. 

Harnack,  137,  262,  299. 

Haydn,  240. 

Heaven,  21,  230,  271,  317,  320,  321. 

Hebrews,  16,  62   67-70. 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to,  85,  86. 

Hegel,  246,  248,  262. 

Hegira,  144. 

Hell,  289,  317,  320,   322,    325,   366. 

Hellenistic,  72. 

Henry  VHI,  182. 

Hereafter,  121,  314-28. 

Heredity,  116,  339. 

Heresies,  152-55,  161,  259,  326,  366. 

Hermann,  262. 

Hernhuterism ,  218, 

Herod  the  Great,  74. 

Herodian  family,  76,   150. 

Heteroousians,  153. 

Hexateuch,  82,  84,  244. 

Hezekiah,  315,  316. 

Hildebrand,  160,   162. 

Hinduism,  226. 

History,  55-65,  94-96,  141,  278. 

Hittites,  56. 

Hivites,  56. 

Hodges,  194. 

Hoffmann,  251. 

Hogarth,  237. 


Holland,  181. 

Holy  Spirit,  48-50,  153,  156,  161,  186, 

312,  313.  3S4>  373- 
Homer,  49,  117,  231. 
Homoiousians,  153. 
Homoousians,  153. 
Hope,  324,  326,  328,  360, 
Hosea,  81,  302. 
Hoshea,  68,  69. 
Host,  169. 
Hubmeier,  251. 
Huguenots,  179. 
Humanists,  93,  172, 
Hunt,  Holman,  237. 
Huss,  John,  173. 
Huxley,  T,  H.,  242,  369. 
Hymns,  230. 
Hypatia,  149. 

Icons,  Iconoclasts,  238,  368. 
Idealism,  109,  no,  247,  248. 
Idumea,  Idumean:    see  Edom. 
Images,  238. 
Imitation  of  Christ,   229,    254,   332, 

3S8. 
Immaculate  conception,  203,  204. 
Immanence,  306,  354. 
Immersion,  196,  197. 
Immortality,  122,  199,  248,  317,  318. 
Incarnation,  134. 
Independents,  183,  185,  192. 
India,  209,  215,  218,  220,  226. 
Indians,  215,  217. 
Indifference,  271. 
Individuals,  IndividuaUsm,  116,  118, 

119,  299,  359. 
Induction,  28,  29,  no,  242,  244,  246. 
Indulgences,  171,  174,  236. 
Inerrancy,  26,  29,  31,  37,  365. 
Infallibility,  50,  95,  203,  204,  370. 
Infidelity,  374. 
Inquisition,  173. 
Inscriptions,  43. 
Inspiration,  27,   29,  30-36,  262,  369, 

370,  374- 
Institutes,  Calvin's,  178. 
Interpretation,  20-37,  Qii  94.  9Si  i49' 

I97>  311- 
Intentionalism,  201. 


3^4 


Christianity  and  Its  Bible 


Investiture,  i6o. 

Ireland,  210. 

Irenics,  Irenicon,  311,  369. 

Isaiah,  81,  302. 

Isaiah,  Book  of,  82. 

Israel,  68,  69,  80,  81,  197. 

Italy,  159. 

J,  84. 

Jacobs,  B.  F.,  206. 

Jansenists,  202,  203. 

Japan,  214,  215.  225,  28a. 

JE,  84. 

Jebusites,  56. 

Jehovah,  62,  114,  116,  301. 

Jeremiah,  81. 

Jerome,  146. 

Jerome  of  Prague,   173. 

Jerusalem,  68,  70,  73,  74,  165,  166. 

Jesuits,  200,  203,  216. 

Jesus:  and  religion,  11;  when  bom, 
7S;  Old  Testament,  84,  87,  139, 
140;  oriental,  121;  second  coming, 
see  Millennium;  Messiah,  129-40; 
pre-existence,  134;  thought  of  him- 
self, 134-38;  compared,  147;  as 
seen  by  non-Christians;  148,  150; 
divinity,  113,  153.  iS4i  i99.  29s, 
296,  fish  symbol,  234;  in  art,  239; 
rationalism,  259,  260;  lives  of,  261, 
262;  Paul,  300;  revealer,  302;  name, 
283,  death,  283-300;  hereafter,  317, 
318;  life  here,  282,  332,  344,  35^, 
363-  367.  374- 

Jews,  16,  71-79,  148. 

Job,  Book  of,  92,  93. 

John  Baptist,  130,  150. 

John  of  Damascus,  146. 

John,  Gospel  of,  86,  122. 

Josephus,  14,  88. 

Joshua,  Book  of,  82,  244. 

Josiah,  6s,  70. 

Joy,  i9>  362. 

Jubilees,  Book  of,  88. 

Judah,  68,  70,  71. 

Judea,  68,  74. 

Judges,  67. 

Judson,  A.,  221. 

Julian  the  Apostate,  142,  149. 

Jupiter,  302. 

Justice,  330,  340. 


Kaftan,  262. 

Kant,  246,  248. 

Keble,  230. 

Kempis,  Thomas  a,  229,  254,  358. 

Kindergarten,  339. 

Kingdom  of  God,  122,  123,  262. 

Knighthood,  164,  223. 

Knox,  John,  182,  189. 

Koran,  14,  302. 

Korea,  225. 

Labor  and  capital,  340, 

Lapsi,  151. 

Lamentations,  92. 

Laws,  58,  70,  84,  96,  334,  338. 

Liberty,  166. 

Life,  2,  8,  282,  329-44. 

Literature:     religious,     12-19,    90-8. 

197,  229-32,  355;    non-biblical,   of 

Judaism,  88,  89,  120,  121,  122,  125, 

129,  131,  137. 
Litotes,  270,  271. 
Livingstone,  D.,  222. 
Lobstein,  262. 
Locke,  John,  247,  258. 
Logos,  109,  III,  133,  134,  154. 
Lord's  Supper,   169,   176,  344. 
Lost,  274,  360. 
Love,    9,   19,  48,   279,  282,  293-96, 

298,  299,  300,  317,  324,  330,   331. 
Loyola,  200. 

Lull,  Raymond,  207,  213,  317. 
Luther,    Martin,    174-76,     217,    230, 

240. 
Lutheran  church,  176,  177. 

Maccabees,  73. 
Maccabees,  Book  of,  88. 
Mackay,  223. 
Maclaren,  229. 

Man,  4,  6,  7,  10,  113,  297,  342. 
Manichaeism,  152. 
Manning,  187. 
Manuscripts,  44. 
Marcionism,  152,  301. 
Mark,  Gospel  of,  86. 
Mariolatry,  203,  218. 
Marriage,    160,    170,    182,   197,   227, 
341- 


Index 


365 


Martel,  144,  159. 

Maxtineau,  256. 

Martyn,  220. 

Martyrs,  150,  234. 

Mary,  Queen,  182,  326. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  189. 

Mary,  Virgin,  148,  203,  230. 

Mass,  169,  171. 

Materialism,  249,  258,  362. 

Medici,  172. 

Meditation,  275,  345-62,  375,  376. 

Melanchton,  176. 

Mendelssohn,  240. 

Menes,  63. 

Mental  reservation,  201. 

Menu,  laws  of,  13. 

Messiah,  125,  129-40. 

Metaphor,  305. 

Methodism,  186. 

Methodius  and  Cyril,  212. 

Micah,  81. 

Middlemen,  364-76. 

Midianites,  56. 

Midrashim,  14. 

Mill,  J,  S.,  249. 

Millennium,  123-23,  198. 

Miller,  198. 

Milton,  i8s,  231,  232,  323. 

Miracles,  147,  148,  366. 

Mishna,  14. 

Misinterpretation,   20-24,   2S1    139. 

Missions,  200,  208-28,  278,  358,  360. 

Moab,  62,  67. 

Moabite  stone,  32. 

Moffat,  222. 

Mohammedanism,  14,  144,  162,  165, 

209,  213,  226,  227,  254. 
Molech,  62,  322. 
Molinos,  255. 

Monasticism,  167,  200,  213,  346. 
Monism,  115. 
Monolatry,  115. 
Monophysite,  is4,  254. 
Monotheism,  115. 
MonotheUte,  154. 
Montanism,  152. 
Moody,  19s,  240. 


Moravians,  218,  260. 
More,  Thomas,  172,  335. 
Mormons,  197. 
Morrison,  220. 
Mortal  sin,  171. 

Moses,  30,  32,  43,  s8,  59,  67,  83,  242, 
302,  362. 

Motherhood  of  God,  306. 
Mozart,  240. 
Miinster,  251. 
Munzer,  251. 
Murillo,  237. 
Murray,  John,  256. 
Music,  104,  240,  300. 
Mysticism,  48,  49,  149,  175,   252-55, 
354- 

Nabonidus,  60. 
Napoleon,  180,  279. 
Naram-sin,  58,  60. 
Naturalism,  249. 
Neale,  Dr.,  230. 
Nebuchadrezzar,  60,  65,  70. 
Nehemiah,  71,  78. 
Neoplatonism,  149,  254. 
Nero,  77,  150. 
Nestorians,  154,  209,  213. 
Netherlands,  181. 
Newman,  John  Henry,  187. 
New  Theology,  194,  195,  243. 
Newton,  Isaac,  242. 
Newton,  John,  230. 
Nineveh,  57. 
Nonconformists,  183. 
North  America,  192  ff. 
Numbers,  symbolism,  98. 

Odoacer,  143. 

Old  Catholic,  203. 

Omnipotence,  326,  354. 

Omnipresence,  354. 

Omniscience,  354. 

Opera,  240. 

Opinion,  public,  334,  338,  344. 

Opportunity,  223. 

Oratorio,  240. 

Ordination,  169. 

Origen,  145,  148,  153,  229,  285. 


366 


Christianity  and  Its  Bible 


Origin  of  Species,  242. 
Original  sin,  342. 
Ormuzd,  127. 
Orthodoxy,  242, 255 

P,  84. 

Painting,  99,  103,  132,  237,  238. 

Paley,  259. 

Palestine,  52-54,  62,  64,  68,  71,  72,  74, 

76,  77-  142.  144- 
Palestrina,  240. 

Pantheism,   115,    246,   254,    354 
Papacy,  157,  160,  161,  162,  202,  203. 
Paper,  44. 
Parables,  40. 

Parallelism,  91,  118,  136 
Parchment,  44. 
Passive  resistance,  188. 
Pastoral  Epistles,  85. 
Paton,  John  G.,  223,  281 
Patrick,    St.,   210. 
Patristics,  14s,  152. 
Paul,  33,  34,  84,  8s,  86,  149,  ISO,  157, 

175,  211,  261,  271,  27s,  300,  315, 

316,  317. 
Peace  of  Westphalia,  177. 
Pelagianism,  155. 
Penance,  170. 
Pentateuch,  82,  83,  244. 
Pessimism,  249. 
Pericles,  103. 
Perizzite,  56. 

Persecutions,  150,  151,  182,  233,  270. 
Perseverance,  final,  181. 
Persians,  61,  71,  220. 
Persona Hty,  312. 
Peter,   149,  150,  157. 
Pharisees,  78,  79,  87,  89,  128,  322. 
Phidias,  103. 
Philemon,  85. 
Philippians,  Epistle,  85. 
Philistine,  56. 
Philo,  14,  88,   109. 
Philosophy,  93,  107-13,  246-49,  275, 

323.  367,  376. 
Phoenicians,  62,  99,  100. 
Photius,  161. 
Pietism,  255. 


Pilate,  76,  150. 

Pilgrimage,  165. 

Pilgrim  Fathers,  192. 

Plato,  Platonism,  107,  109,  no. 

Pliny,    151,    267. 

Plymouth  Brethren,  198. 

Poetry,  48,  90-93,  230,  831. 

Politics,  207,  340. 

Polygamy,  197. 

Polytheism,  115,  348. 

Porphyry,  149. 

Positivism,  249. 

Post-millennialists,  123. 

Praise,  9,  357. 

Prayer,  9,  211,  222,  347,  357. 

Prayerbook,  182. 

Predestination:     see    Foreordination . 

Pre-existence,  of  Jesus,  134. 

Pre-millennialists,  123. 

Presbyter,    Presbyterians,    157,    178, 

184,   185,   189,  191,  194. 
Pride,  holy,  10,  272. 
Priests,  169,  288. 
Principles,  139,  299,  314,  332. 
Printing,  166. 
Probabilism,  201. 
Probation,  125 
Priscillianism,  152. 
Procurator,  74,  76. 
Propaganda,  216. 

Prophets,  81,  94,  130,   147,   198,  388 
Propitiation,  287. 
Proselytes,  73,  266. 
Protestantism,  creeds,  205. 
Protestantism,  missions,  216-28. 
Proverbs,  83,  92,  93. 
Psalms,  83,  92. 
Pseudepigraphic,  88. 
Psychology,  137,  243. 
Ptolemies,  65,  72,  241. 
Puranas,  13. 

Purgatory,  125,  171,  218. 
Puritans,  183,  192,  238. 
Purity,  186,  329. 
Pusey,  187. 
Pyramids,  13,  64,  99. 
Pythagoras,  108,  109,  147. 


Index 


367 


Quakers,  183. 
Quietism,  255. 

Raffael,  237. 

Raikes,  Robert,  206. 

Rationalism,  252,  259.  260. 

Rauch,  237. 

Realism,  249. 

Realists,  110. 

Reason,  49,  248. 

Reflection,  347. 

Reformation,  174  ff.,  200,  230. 

Reformed     Churches,    176,     178-82, 

189-91. 
Regeneration,  9,  170,  303,   306,   308, 

309- 
Rehoboam,  68. 
Religion,  2,  3,  11,  12,    17,  245,  262, 

342- 
Renaissance,  172,  236. 
Renan,  261. 
Repentance,  130,  276. 
Resurrection,   95,    118-20,    128,    148, 

268,   284,   318. 
Retreat,  352. 
Retribution,  122,  314. 
Revelation,  302,  365,  369. 
Revelation,  Book  of,  21,  98,  124. 
Reverie,  346,  358. 
Revival,  360. 

Revolutions,  180,  185,  194. 
Richelieu,   177,   179. 
Rigdon,  Sidney,  196,  197. 
Righteousness,  276,  288,  330. 
Rites.  288,  330. 
Ritschlianism,  262. 
Ritualism,  183,  187. 
Roman    Empire,   77,   142,   iS7.    160. 

26s,  268,  269. 
Romanesque,  236. 
Romans,  Epistle,  85,  97,  264,  268. 
Rush,  Benjamin,  207. 
Russia,  212,  214. 

Sabbath  school,  206,  368. 
Sacraments,   169,   182. 
Sacrifices,  288. 

Sadducees,  78,  79,  87,  89,  128. 
Salvation,  140,  155,  275-77. 


Salvation  Army,  186 

Samaria,  68,  6g. 

Samuel,  117,  302. 

Sanday,  29. 

Sanhedrin,  79. 

Sankey,  240. 

Sardanapalus,  59. 

Sargon,  Assyrian,  59,  69. 

Sargon,  Babylonia,  58,  59. 

Satan,  96,  117,  126-28,  323. 

Saul,  67. 

Savonarola,  173. 

Scandinavia,  177,  212. 

Schism,  161. 

Schleiermacher,  260. 

Scholarship,  43-46,  49,  50. 

Schoolmen,  168,  202,  254. 

Schopenhauer,  246,  249 

Schultz,  262. 

Schwartz,  T.  C,  218. 

Science,  105-8,   199,  241-45,  369. 

Scotland,  182,  189-91,  211. 

Scott,  231,  232. 

Scotus,  Scotists,  168. 

Scribes,  79. 

Sculpture,  99,  103,  237,  238. 
Seleucidae,  72. 

Selfishness,  333,  344,  358. 

Self-sacrifice,  294,  298,  331,  341. 

Semites,  55. 

Seneca,  in,  264. 

Sennacherib,  59,  70. 

Septuagint,  72,  88. 

Serfs,  164. 

Serpent,  127. 

Servants,  339. 

Servetus,  256. 

Shakespeare,  23,  231,  232,  284,  290 
333- 

Shalmaneser,  59. 

Shamash,  58. 

Sheol,  106,  117,  118,  120,  323. 

Shintoism,  14. 

Simile,  305. 

Simon  of  France,  244. 

Simplicity,  343. 

Sin,  4,  5,  171,  293,  342. 


368 


Christianity  and  Its  Bible 


Sinai,  53,  44- 

Siva,  13. 

Skepticism,  112,  168,  260,  370,   374. 

Slavery,  192,  227. 

Smalcald,  177. 

Smith,  H.  B.,  194. 

Smith,  Joseph,  197. 

Social  evil,  341. 

Socinus,  256. 

Sociology,  163,  164,  166,  332-41- 

Socrates,  107,  109. 

Solomon,  67,  82,  83. 

Solomon,  Psalms  of,  88. 

Solidarity,  116. 

Son  of  David,  13s- 

Son  of  God,  137. 

Son  of  man,  136,  137. 

Song  of  Songs,  83,  92. 

Sophia,  Church  of  St.,  162,  235. 

Soteriology,  155. 

Soul,  4. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  246,  249. 

Spener,  255. 

Spinoza,  246. 

Spiritual  insight,  47-50,  98,  366. 

Spurgeon,  229. 

Sruti,  13. 

St.  Marks,  235. 

St.  Peters,  236. 

Stanley,  H.  M.,  222,  223. 

State  and  church,  177,  180,  181,  190, 

193- 
Statistics,  missionary,  228. 
Stoicism,  iii,  112. 
Strauss,  261. 
Strong,  A.  H.,  28. 
Strophes,  91. 
Study,  38-50.  347.  3S2. 
Suetonius,  150,  267. 
Sufism,  254. 
Supererogation,  171. 
Supper,  Lord's,  169,  176,  344. 
Supremacy,  Acts  of,  183. 
Suso,  254. 
Suzerain,  163. 
Swedenborg,  253. 
Switzerland,  178. 


Symbolism,  98,  234. 
Synagogue,  79,  87,  102. 
Synoptists,  86. 
Syrians,  62,  72,  74. 

Tabernacle,  67,  96,  102. 

Tacitus,  267. 

Talmud,  14. 

Taoism,  13. 

Targum,  14. 

Tartarus,  322. 

Tauler,  229. 

Taylor,  229. 

Temperance,  23,  207,  227,  337,  338. 

Temple,  67,  71,  74,  79,  100-102,  165, 

166. 
Tennyson,  7,  231,  290,  319,  326,  339. 
Ten  tribes,  lost,  69. 
Terms,  20,  303,  310,  311. 
Tertullian,  145. 
Tetzel,  174. 
Thales,  108. 
Thebes,  64,  65. 
Theism,  354- 
Theodosius,  142. 
Theology,  3,  86,  107,  114,  168,  17s. 

178,    194,    19s,    241-45,    260,    263, 

27s.  29s.  367,  376. 
Theories,  283-6,  320,  350. 
Theosophy,  252-4. 
Thessalonians,  I  and  II,  85. 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  182. 
Thomists,  168. 
Thorwaldsen,  237. 
Tiberius,  77,  150. 
Tiglath-pileser,  59. 
Tischendorf,  44. 
Tissot,  237. 
Titian,  237. 
Tolerance,  262. 
Tractarian,  187. 
Trajan,  142,  151. 
Transcendence,   116,  354. 
Transubstantiation,  169,  173,  176. 
Travel,  166. 
Trinity,  153,  195,  210,  256,  260,  303, 

312,  313- 
Tripitaka,  13. 


Index 


369 


Trumbull,  H.  C,  206. 

Truth,  38,  283,  314,  344,  353,  361, 

366.  374- 
Tiibingen  school,  261. 

Uganda,  223. 
Ulfilas,  210. 

Ultramontanism,  202,  203. 
Unction,  extreme,  170. 
Uniformity,  177,  183. 
Union,  Christian,  11,  igi,  341. 
Unitarianism,  256. 
United  Free  Church,  igi. 
Universalism,  256. 
Upanishads,  13. 
Utopia,  172,  335. 

Value-judgments,  262. 

Vatican,  172. 

Vedas,  13. 

Villains,  164. 

Vinci,  Leonardi  da,  237. 

Vincent,  J.  H.,  206. 

Virgin-birth,  95,  134,  260. 

Vishnu,  13. 

Vladimir,  212. 

Voltaire,  258. 

Vulgate,  77. 

Wagner,  240. 

Waldenses,  173. 

Wars:  Civil,  192;  French  Revolu- 
tion, 180;  Independence,  192; 
Smalcald,  177;   Thirty  Years,  177. 

Washington,  299,  308. 

Watts,  230. 


"Wee  Frees,"  191. 

Wendt,  262. 

Werih-Urlheile,  262. 

Wesley,  Charles,  186,  230. 

Wesley,  John,  186,  206,  207,  229. 

Westminster   Confession,    184. 

Whitefield,  186,  229. 

Whittier,  352,  371. 

Wiclif,  173. 

Will,  154,  176,  248. 

Willard,  Frances  E.,  207. 

William  of  Orange,  i8i,  185. 

Williams,  John,  221. 

WUliams,  Roger,  193. 

Wisdom  literature,  93,  112. 

Wolfenbiittel  Fragments,  259. 

Wolff,  259. 

Woman's  temperance,  etc.,   207. 

Word:     see    Logos 

Word  of  God,  20,  30,  371. 

Wordsworth,  231,  308. 

Worship,  9. 

Xavier,  Francis,  215. 

Y.  M.  C.  A.,  186. 
Young,  Brigham,  197. 

Zend  A  vesta,  13, 
Zerrubbabel,  71. 
Zeus,  301. 
Zinzendorf,  218. 
Zoroastrianisra,  13. 
Zwingli,  176,  178. 


Princeto 


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1    1012  01208   2550 


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